LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

University  of  California. 


Class 

"^^ \ 


THE  OLD    HOME   IN  THE   COUNTRY 


NOLAN'S 

ONE  HUNDRED  LESSONS 

IN    , 

ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


A  Manual  and  Text  of  Klkmentaky  Agriculture 
FOR  Rural  Schools. 

BY 

ARETAS  W.  NOLAN,  A.  B. 


Assistant  Professor  of  Horticulture,  P'orestry,  and  Kcoiioinic  Kutomology, 

West  Virginia  University. 

Formerly  Superintendent  of  I^ima,  Indiana,  Consolidated  Schools. 


IDRa/V 


NEW  EDITION     /f  univ^rsiv  .  ' 

OF 

REVISED     AND     ENLARGED 

FAITH. 

Here  in  the  country's  heart. 

Where  the  grass  is  green, 
Life  is  the  same  sweet  life 

As  it  e'er  hath  been. 

Trust  in  a  God  still  lives, 

And  the  bell  at  morn 
Floats  with  a  thought  of  God 

O'er  the  rising  corn. 

God  comes  down  in  the  rain, 

A'ld  the  crop  grows  tall— 
This  is  the  country  faith, 

And  the  best  of  all. 


ACME  PUB.  CO.,   PHtNTERS,  MORQANTOWN,  W,  VA 


HI 


Copyright,   1909,  by 

Howard  L.  Swisher  and  Aretas  W.  Nolan 

Morgantown,   W.   Va. 

All   rights  reserved 


TO 

MY   FATHER   AND   MOTHER 
WHO  ALL  THEIR  LIVES 
HAVE  DWELT  AMONG  THE  FIELDS 
IS   THIS  BOOK  DEDICATED. 


212424 


PREFACE 

The  preparation  of  this  book  is  an  effort  to  combine 
in  convenient  form  the  directions  for  the  laboratory  ex- 
periments, field  exercises,  text-book  studies,  and  note- 
book work,  which  the  author  has  found  most  practical 
and  helpful  in  teaching  elementary  agriculture  and 
nature-study  in  rural  and  consolidated  schools. 

It  has  been  the  aim  of  the  author  to  simplify  the 
subject-matter,  materials  and  methods  usually  presented 
in  text-books  on  agriculture,  so  that  the  teacher  in  th^ 
(;nc-room  county  school,  in  the  grammar  grades  of  a 
graded  school  or  in  the  beginning  years  of  a  high 
school  may  find  the  lessons  easily  practical,  within  the 
range  of  the  pupils'  understanding,  and  full  of  profitable 
intercut  rnd  educational  value.  It  is  a  text-book  and 
manual  combined,  for  tlie  purpose  of  leading  away  from 
the  usual  text-book  method  of  teaching,  to  the  method 
of  first-hand  contact  with  the  real  things  of  Agricul- 
ture. If  the  work  is  not  conducted  by  means  of  real 
things,  the  educational  value  is  lost,  and  the  informa- 
tion given  not  permanently  retained. 

The  lessons  do  not  follow  each  other  in  very  close 
sequence,  each  lesson  being  independent,  permitting  the 
teacher  to  choose  as  the  season  and  occasion  make  the 
materials  available.  It  is  not  the  purpose  to  make 
"ready  made''  lessons,  which  will  discourage  or  take 
away  the  need  of  effort  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  but 
to  furnish  suggestive  subject-matter  and  methods  upon 
which  he  may  build  from  his  own  initiative  and  resource- 
fulness.   The  lessons  may  seem  unorganized  as  here 


PREFACE 


presented,  for  the  attempt  has  been  to  organize  educa- 
tionally, upon  this  principle : — an  observational  study 
of  the  common  things  and  processes  of  nature,  related 
to  farm  life,  having  a  human  interest  value,  rather  than 
upon  sequence  of  subject-matter.  Any  energetic 
teacher,  by  carefully  planning  the  work  in  advance,  and 
reading  the  references  given,  can  do  creditable  class 
work  in  elementary  agriculture,  if  he  is  willing  to  "do 
things,"  as  herein  suggested.  By  the  use  of  simple  il- 
lustrations, and  such  material  and  apparatus  as  any 
teacher  can  make  or  pick  up,  by  going  often  to  the  open 
fields,  by  requiring  the  pupils  to  record  accurately  their 
observations,  and  by  teaching  with  real  enthusiasm  these 
lessons  in  agriculture  may  open  the  eyes  of  teachers  and 
children  alike  to  the  great  natural  forces,  laws,  and 
phenomena  among  which  we  live  our  daily  lives. 

The  author  wishes  to  express  his  grateful  apprecia- 
tion to  the  following  persons,  who  have  offered  many 
helpful  suggestions  in  the  preparation  of  this  book : — 

Dr.  T.  C.  Atkeson,  Dean  of  Agriculture,  and  Super- 
intendent D.  W.  Working,  of  the  Agricultural  Exten- 
sion Department  of  West  A'irginia  University,  Dr.  J.  L. 
Sheldon.  Dr.  W.  M.  Munson,  and  Prof.  B.  H.  Hitc,  of 
West  Virginia  University,  and  Prof.  A.  R.  Mann  of 
Cornell  University. 

We  are  indebted  to  the  following  persons  and  sta- 
tions for  the  use  of  illustrations  and  bulletins  : — 

Dr.  L.  TL  Bailey,  for  the  use  of  the  Cornell  Rural 
Leaflets;  Prof.  B.  M.  Davis  for  the  Miami  Bulletins; 
West  \^irginia  and  Purdue  Indiana  Experiment  Sta- 
tions; B.  F.  Johnson  and  Orange  Judd  Pub.  Co's. 

Morgantown,  1909.  The  Author. 


INTRODUCTION 

The  questions  naturally  asked  are: —  "What  is 
agriculture?"  ''Why  should  we  be  urged  to  teach  it?" 
We  who  advocate  the  teaching  of  elementary  agricul- 
ture in  the  public  schools  must  try  to  answer  these 
questions. 

Agriculture  is  the  science  piul  the  art  of  making  a 
living  and  a  life  by  growing  plants  and  domestic 
animals. 

Three  important  reasons  why  elementary  agricul- 
ture should  be  taught  in  the  public  schools  are  as 
follows : — 

First. —  The  materials  with  which  agriculture 
deals  may  serve  an  educational  purpose.  Just  as  we 
use  the  materials  of  mathematics,  literature,  physiology 
and  history  without  a  thought  of  training  directly  for 
engineering,  authorship,  medicine  or  law,  but  for  the 
educational  value  of  their  subject-matter,  so  we  use  the 
materials  of  agriculture  for  educational  purposes,  with- 
out directly  training  for  a  trade  or  business..  All  the 
materials  used,  from  the  clods  of  the  valley  to  the  cattle 
on  a  thousand  hills,  lead  the  student  to  a  direct  observa- 
tional study,  a  first  hand  contact  with  nature,  the  source 
of  ah  knowledge.  The  most  advanced  students  of 
science  find  the  best  applications  of  their  knowledge  in 
the  fields  of  agriculture ;  it  must  therefore  be  evident 
that  elementary  agriculture  offers  a  chance  for  study 
and  brain  development,  at  least  equal  to  that  of  any  other 
branch  in  the  public  schools. 


TNTRODUCTION  Ix 

Second. —  The  study  of  elementary  agriculture 
tends  to  place  the  student  in  better  harmony  with  his 
natural  surrounding.  This  is  especially  true  of  ag- 
riculture in  the  rural  schools.  Whatever  the  subjects 
taught  in  rural  schools  may  be,  it  will  always  remain 
true  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  pupils  will  remain  in 
rural  surrotmdings ;  and  is  it  not  wise  to  ask  that  these 
pupils  should  have  an  intelligent,  sympathetic  relation- 
ship with  these  surroundings?  To  live  in  harmony  with 
one's  natural  suroundings  has  a  moral-  influence  upon 
character.  The  boy  or  girl  who  takes  an  interest  in 
growing  plants  and  animals  cannot  be  so  bad  as  the  child 
who  does  not  care  for  or  love  these  things.  There  is 
nothing  but  goodness  in  most  plants  and  animals,  and 
the  child  who  grows  up  in  harmony  with  them  must  im- 
bibe some  of  this  quality. 

Third. —  Elementary  agriculture  may  give  a  cue 
to  an  important  vocation.  If  the  teaching  of  this  sub- 
ject should  turn  many  to  the  vocation  of  farming,  no 
harm  is  done  to  anyone.  It  is  a  gainful  occupation, 
bringing  health,  education  and  the  comforts  of  life  to 
all  who  intelHgently  and  industriously  engage  in  it.  Is 
it  not  wisdom,  then,  on  the  part  of  our  educators,  our 
teachers  and  our  parents,  to  give  these  future  farmers 
some  instruction,  some  training,  along  the  line  that  they 
are  to  follow  in  life? 

If  then  the  teaching  of  agriculture  in  the  public 
schools  gives  the  student  a  cue  to  his  future  vocation, 
if  the  subject-matter  of  this  fundamental  occupation 
is  educational  and  cultural,  and  if  it  places  the  student 
in  better  harmony  with  his  environment,  it  has  cer- 


X  I X  i  BODUCTION 

tainly  justified  its  claim  to  a  place  in  the  public  school 
curriculum. 

To  teach  some  agriculture  does  not  mean  that  one 
must  know  all  agriculture.  If  one  simply  teaches  a 
few  of  the  ordinary  facts  that  will  make  life  happier  and 
sweeter  and  make  the  farm  home  better,  that  is  a  good 
beginning  and  one  that  will  bear  rich  fruit.  The  average 
school  teacher  can  do  these  things,  by  exercising  enthus- 
iasm and  energy,  and  by  following  a  good  text-book  for 
a  guide.  Assign  readings,  perform  experiments,  make 
excursions  to  the  fields,  require  note-book  records  and 
have  class  recitations.  The  study  of  agriculture  will 
bring  new  life  and  spirit  to  the  school  room,  and  will 
help  the  schools  and  the  country  people  to  love  nature, 
the  country,  the  home  and  the  state. 

The  Author. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS 

1.  Read  from  other  text-books  the  subject-matter 
treated  in  these  lessons. 

2.  Collect  beforehand  the  materials  needed  for 
experiments,  and  have  everything  ready  for  the 
recitation. 

3.  Ask  the  pupils  to  assist  in  collecting  the  ma- 
terials, and  have  them  perform  the  experiments  when 
possible. 

4.  Make  many  excursions  for  observations  of 
good  and  bad  farming  methods.  Bring  the  class  to 
the  material  when  the  material  can  not  be  brought 
to  them. 

5.  Have  a  school  garden,  if  possible. 

6.  Write  to  your  State  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  the  State  College  of  Agriculture  and  to  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  at  Washington  for  informa- 
tion, bulletins,  and  seeds. 

7.  Each  pupil  should  have  a  permanent  note- 
book and  keep  a  neat  pen-and-ink  record  of  each 
lesson.  An  example  of  how  each  lesson  may  be 
written  up  is  given  in  the  appendix.  The  work  of  writ- 
ing each  lesson  creates  a  better  interest  and  gives  the 
pupil   something  definite  to  do. 

8.  The  lessons  need  not  follow  the  order  given  m 
the  text.  The  suggestions  for  the  season  accompany 
each  lesson,  those  for  the  winter  being  so  suggested, 
because  the  material  used  is  then  more  available  than 
much  of  that  in  the  other  lessons. 

9.  The  writer  will  gladly  reply  to  inquiries  from 
teachers  concerning  any  points  in  these  lessons  not 
clearly  understood. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


LESSON  PAGE 

1    Composition  of  Soils    1 

2.     A  Study  of  Soil  4 

3  Relation  of  Soil  to  Water 6 

4  Capillarity   of   Soil      8 

5  Fertilizers   and  Plant   Foods 10 

6  Plant   Foods 16 

7  Slopes  and  Drainage 20 

8  The  Root  System  of  the   Plant    21 

9  Root    Hairs    24 

10  General  Study  of  Germination    27 

11  Structure  of  Seeds    29 

12  Selecting  Seed   Corn    in    the   Field 31 

13  Scoring  Seed  Corn    34 

14  Selecting  and  Testing   Seed  Corn 41 

15  Growing  Musk-melons    48 

16  Garden   Making    50 

17  Planting  the  Garden    ; 53 

18  Tree   Planting    57 

19  Planting  a  Farm  Wood-lot 69 

20  An  Excursion  to  the  Woods   61 

21  Improving  the   Soil    63 

22  Rotation   of   Crops    65 

23  Growing   Alfalfa    67 

24  Treating  Seed  Potatoes  to  Prevent  Scab 70 

25  Biological  Maps  of  Home  Farms 73 

26  Spraying  for  Codling  Moth  and   Fungous  Diseases  75 

27  Budding    78 

28  Grafting    81 

29  San  Jose  Scale  and  Its  Treatment 84 

30  Collections   of   Local    Products 86 

31  Habits  of  the  Common  Weeds  88 

32  The    Flower 91  . 


XIV  TABLE    OF    CONTENTS 


LESSON 

33  The  Wheat  Crop   94 

34  The   Corn   Crop 96 

35  The  Roots  of  Corn  and  Clover 98 

36  Suckers  on  Corn  and  the  Stooling  Habit  of  Wheat.  100 

37  Plant  Propagation  from  Cuttings    102  ^ 

38  Plant   Stems    105  -^ 

39  Leaves 107  > 

40  A  Study   of   Fruits 110^ 

41  Decay  in  Apples    112 

42  Judging   Apples    113 

43  Pruning 114 

44  A  Hotbed  Garden    116 

45  Field   Study   of  the  Common   Grains 118 

46  The  Best  Corn  in  the  Community 119 

47  Propagation  of  Raspberries    120 

48  Raising  Cucumbers  in  the  Garden 122 

49  The  Pea  Family    124 

50  No  Two  Plants  Alike    127 

51  Transplanting    130 

52  The  Toad,   the  Farmer's  Friend 132 

53  The   Driving   Horse    135 

54  The  Draft  Horse   139 

55  The  Dairy  Cow    143 

56  The   Beef  Cow 147 

57  The  Composition  of  Milk    150 

58  The  Souring  of  Milk    153 

59  The  Babcock  Test  for  Butter-fat  in  Milk 156 

60  Sheep    158 

61  The    Hog    163 

62  Poultry    169 

63  A   Study   of   Feathers    172 

64  A  Study  of  the  Egg   176 

65  Food    Studies    179 

66  Food  Proportions  and  Requirements   182 

67  Tests    for    Food    Compounds    184 

ns     Detevmlnine:  Rations   for  Farm    Animals 186 

69  Feeding  Standards  for  Farm  Animals   189 

70  An  Outline  of  the  Animal  Kingdom   190 


TABLE    OF     CONTENTS  XV 

LESSON  PAGE 

71  The   Orders   of   Insects    192 

72  The    Grasshopper    195 

73  The   Butterfly 198 

74  The   Fly    201 

75  The    Bugs     204 

76  The   Dragon  Ply    206 

77  The  Bee    208 

78  The    Beetle     212 

79  Spraying   Calendar 214 

80  Value  of  Birds  to  Agriculture    216 

81  A  Comparison   of   Agricultural    Products 218 

82  Crop   Records    220 

83  An  Estimate  of  the  Cost  and  Receipts  of  a  Good 
Crop  Rotation   222 

84  Treating   Grains    to    Prevent    Smut 224 

85  Treating  Legumes  to  Get  a  Good  Stand 226 

86  Roads   and   Road-making    228 

87  An  Assessment  of  Farm  Values 233 

88  Farm  Workshops  and  Laboratories 234 

89  Farm   Machinery    236 

90  The    Water-Supply    238 

91  Cultural   Requirements  for   Vegetables    241 

92  Knot-tying  in  Ropes    243 

93  Fences 245 

94  Wood-working    247 

95  The  Outlook  in  Agriculture  in   West   Virginia....  251 

96  The   Rural    Free    Mail    Delivery    253 

97  Beautifying  Home  and   School   Grounds 256 

98  The   Farm    Home    261 

99  The  Grange   264 

]00     Juvenile    Agricultural    Societies     268 

Appendix 274 


•^  ^''^'^ 


Elementary  Agriculture 


LESSON  I 

Title. — Composition  of  Soil. 

Season. — Any  season  when  ground  is  not  frozen. 

Object. — To  study   the   composition   of  some   of  our 
farm  soils. 

Material. — A   cupful   of   ordinary   soil,    some   humus, 
three  one-quart  fruit-jars  and  water. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND    METHOD 

Soil  is  composed  of  particles  of  rock  and  a  greater 
or  less  amount  of  humus  and  animal  matter,  including 
air  and  soil  water.  Before  soil  is  a  good  place  for  grow- 
ing plant  roots,  it  must  contain  the  proper  degree  of 
heat,  and  the  soil  water  in  which  the  plant  food  is  dis- 
solved. 

Humus  is  the  decaying  roots,  stems,  manures, 
leaves,  etc.  Leaf  mould  from  the  woods  is  the  best 
example.  Ask  the  pupils  to  bring  some  leaf-mould 
for  this  lesson. 

To  obtain  the  sand,  clay,  and  silt  from  the  soil, 
proceed  as  follows: 

Place  the  cupful  of  soil  in  one  of  the  jars,  cover 


/ 

( 

I 
I 


ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


with  water,  and  let  it  soak  for  a  few  hours.  This  will 
separate  the  soil  granules.  Fill  the  jar  two-thirds  full 
of  water,  stir  the  contents  thoroughly,  then  let  the  soil 
particles  settle  for  one  minute.  Drain  off  the  water 
and  suspended  soil  into  another  jar,  leaving  sand  and 
gravel  in  the  first  jar. 

Let  the  contents  of  the  second  jar  settle  for  five 
minutes  and  drain  off  as  before,  into  the  third  jar. 
In  the  second  jar  is  left  silt. 

Let  the  contents  of  the  third  jar  settle  three  aays ; 
then  drain  off  the  water.     You  have  left  clay. 

This  experiment  may  be  carried  on  during  several 
days,  in  connection  with  other  experiments  in  soil. 

Compare  sand,  silt,  clay,  and  humus,  as  to  color, 
size  of  particles,  and  stickiness.  Rub  the  differ- 
ent soils  between  the  fingers,  and  it  will  help  you  to 
compare  size  of  particles,  and  characteristic  qualities. 

Place  some  humus  on  a  hot  stove.  Does  it  burn? 
Does  the  sand  or  clay  burn?  Which  is  the  stickiest  soil? 
Which  is  the  heaviest?  Which  ought  not  to  be  worked 
while  it  is  wet?    Why? 

The  different  combinations  of  these  ingredients 
give  us  our  farm  soils.  A  loam  is  a  mixture  of  sand, 
silt,  clay,  and  humus.  The  ingredient  predominating, 
distinguishes  the  kind  of  loam. 

Note. — Soil  particle  dimensions: 

Stories — above  i  millimeter  (one  twenty-fifth  of 
an  inch). 

Sand — between  i  millimeter  and  .05  millimeter. 

Silt — between  .05  millimeter  and  .005  millimeter. 

Clay — between  .005  millimeter  and  .0005  milli- 
meter. 


ELEMENTABY    AGBICULTUBE  3 

Humus  varies  from  woody  fragments  to  black 
powdery   material. 

Note. — Copy  and  learn  the  following  table  show- 
ing the  ways  by  which  soil  is  formed. 

The  teacher  should  take  up  these  topics  and  explain 
fully. 


By  atmosphere. 

By   water. 

By   plants. 

Root 

pressure. 

By  animals. 

Burrowing. 

Earthworms. 

Animal 
accumulation. 

By  man. 

Windsr 

Rivers. 

Tillage. 

Chemical 
action. 

Landslides. 

Acid 

.  secretion. 

Irrigation. 

Temperature 
changes 

Oceans. 
Frost. 

Bacteria. 

Control    of 
streams. 

Vegetable 
deposit. 

Mining. 

Ice. 
Glaciers. 

Lumbering. 

Chemical 
action. 

References: — Farmers"  Bulletin  No.  187 — p.  6. 
"Agriculture  for  Beginners," — Burkett  et  al. — Ginn  & 
Co.,  pages  I  to  6.  (Future  references  to  the  above  book 
will  be  designated  by  the  abbreviation,  ''Id.")  Gofif  & 
Mayne's  Agriculture,  p. — 33-42.  American  Book  Co. — 
Future  references  designated  by  "G.  &  M." 


ONE    HUNDBEO    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  II 

Title.— A  Study  of  SoU. 
Season. — Fall  or  Spring. 

Object. — To  learn  the  nature  and  properties  of  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  soil. 

Material. — The  different  soils  in  the  school-room  in 
convenient  vessels,  or  pupils  in  the  field. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

Have  the  different  types  of  soil  before  the  pupils 
as  follows : 

1.  Wet  clay  soil,  of  heavy,  sticky  consistency. 

2.  Sandy  soil,  a  large  amount  of  sand  present. 

3.  Sandy  loam,  containing  more  sand  than  clay. 

4.  Clay  loam,  containing  more  clay  than  sand. 

5.  Humus  soil,  containing  a  large  amount  of  de- 
caying organic  matter. 

Have  pupils  observe  and  feel  each  of  these  types. 
Which  is  the  commonest  in  this  locality?     How 
was  the  soil  formed? 

Name  some  crops  which  will  grow  best  on  each 
kind  of  soil. 


ELEMENTABY   AGRICULTUBE 


The   following  table   should  be.  copied   and  filled 
out  in  the  pupil's  note-book: 


Kind   of    Soil 

Where    found 

Growth    on    It 

1    Price   per   Acre 



Note. — In  a.ll  these  lessons  the  pupil  should  keep 
a  note-book  record,  following  the  form  given,  for  each 
lesson,  and  under  Subject-matter  and  Method  in  his 
note-book  he  should  make  all  tabulations  and  answer 
all  questions. 

To  show  the  character  of  soils  in  drying  out,  fill  a 
pan  with  each  of  the  types,  sand,  clay  and  loam,  and 
thoroughly  wet  the  soils.  Note  the  action  of  each  in 
drying. 

References : — 

Agriculture — Burkett  et  al — pages  i-6.  Hatch  Bul- 
letin 95. 


ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  III 

Title.— Relation  of  Soil  to  Water. 
Season. — Any  season  when  soils  are  obtainable. 
Object. — To  show  percolation  and  capillarity  of  the 
different  kinds  of  soil. 

Material. — The  five  different  kinds  of  soil,  or  merely 
the  sand,  clay,  and  humus;  box  prepared  as  de- 
scribed   below;     cloth,     and     lamp     chimneys. 

(Apparatus  of  Pig.  i  may  be  used  also.) 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

Make  a  rack  to  hold  three  lamp  chimneys,  by 
boring  holes  in  the  side  of  a  box.  Tie  a  cloth  over 
one  end  of  the  chimneys,  and  fill  each  with  one  of  the 
different  kinds  of  soil.  Place  the  cloth  end  of  each 
chimney  downward  through  a  hole  in  the  box.  Have  a 
tumbler  under  each  chimney.  Slowly  pour  the  same 
amount  of  water  into  the  top  of  the  chimneys.  Through 
which  does  it  drip  first?  Which  absorbs  most  before 
it  begins  to  drip?  Pour  the  same  amount  of  water 
into  each  chimney,  and  observe  which  soil  retains 
the  most. 

For  a  second  part  of  this  exercise,  fill  the  same 
chimneys  as  before  with  dry  soil,  and  set  them  in  the 
rack  so  that  the  cloth-ends  reach  down  into  the  tumb- 
lers, filled  to  equal  heights  with  water.  In  v^hich 
chimney  does  the  water  rise  most  rapidly?     In  which 


ELEMENTARY   AGRICULTURE  7 

does  it  rise  the  highest?     The  teacher  should  apply  the 
facts  taught  in  this  experiment. 

For  a  third  part  of  this  study,  fill  two  flat  pans 
with  the  same  kind  and  amount  of  soil,  and  thoroughly 
soak  each  pan  of  soil  with  water.  As  soon  as  the  water 
has  soaked  in,  cover  the  wet  soil  of  one  pan  with  a  thin 
mulch  of  dust  and  leave  the  other  uncovered.  Weigh, 
set  aside  and  notice  again  after  24  hours.  Which  has 
lost  the  greater  weight  through  surface  evaporation? 
The  dust  mulch  prevents  evaporation,  and  is  thus  a  good 
covering  for  soils  to  help  them  retain  their  moisture. 


Fig.  I. 

<^K:x^  n^*^^^^^^  t^^^^^^^ 


APPARATUS    TO    TEST    THE    CAPACITY    OP    SOII^S    TO    TAKE    IN 
RAINFALL 


References: — Farmers'   Bulletin    137,    G.    &   M, 
Pages  17-20. 


ONE     HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON   IV 

Title.— Capillarity  of  Soil. 

Season. — For  any  season. 

Object. — To  determine  the  effect  upon  the  germina- 
tion of  seed,  of  firming  the  soil  about  them,  and 
also  the  effect  upon  the  movement  of  soil  water. 

Material. — Two  tin  cans,  pea  seeds,  soil,  pie-tins,  and 
water. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 

(a)  Number  the  tin  cans  i  and  2.  Put  good  soil 
in  both  cans.  In  No.  i  leave  the  soil  as  loose  as  possi- 
ble, and  cover  the  seeds  planted  in  it  with  loose  soil 
In  No.  2  press  down  the  soil  gently  as  you  are  filling  it. 
then  plant  the  seeds  at  the  same  depth  as  in  No.  i, 
but  lightly  firm  the  soil  over  the  seeds  in  No.  2.  Ob- 
serve and  record  which  seeds  germinate  first. 

(b)  Make  holes  in  the  bottoms  of  the  tin  cans 
used  in  part  (a).  Have  equal  bulks  of  soil  in  both 
cans.  Firm  the  soil  well  in  No.  2,  so  that  it  is  smooth 
and  level.  Leave  the  soil  loose  in  No.  i.  Sprinkle 
dust  over  the  surface  of  both  soils.  Set  the  cans 
of  soil  in  the  pie-tins,  and  fill  the  pie-tins  with  water. 
Observe  and  record  in  which  can  the  water  from  be- 
low first  dampens  the  dry  soil  on  the  surface. 

Note. — In  this  experiment  you  observe  a  phenom- 
enon called  capillarity.     In  this  case  it  is  the  passage 


ELEMENTARY    AGRICULTURE  9 

of  water  through  the  minute  spaces  between  the  soil 
particles.  When  the  particles  of  soil  are  far  apart  and 
there  are  many  air-spaces,  the  water  cannot  pass  read- 
ily by  capillarity.  Some  clay  soils  may  be  so  fine  and 
closely  packed,  however,  that  capillarity  acts  very 
slowly.     In  sandy  soil  capillarity  acts  quickly. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  soil  particles  may  be  so 
loosely  connected  as  to  prevent  capillarity.  This  is 
the  explanation  of  the  value  of  the  surface  mulch. 
The  looseness  of  the  surface  soil  prevents  the  escape 
of  the  soil  water  below,  brought  up  by  capillarity. 

Fill  two  equal  sized  cans  with  soil,  one  with  sand, 
and  the  other  with  clay.  Weigh  each  can  of  soil  and 
allow  water  to  drip  into  each  can  until  it  begins  to  run 
out  through  the  holes  in  the  bottom.  Now  weigh  each 
can  and  note  the  diflference  in  capacity  for  holding 
water. 

References: — Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  245,  257  and 
218. 

Agriculture. — Burkett  et  al — p.   10-15. 


10  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  V 

Title. — Fertilizers  and  Plant  Foods. 

Season. — Any  time.     Should  follow  Lesson  VI. 

Object. — To  understand  plant  foods,  and  how  to  fer- 
tilize the  soil. 

Material. — Two  cans  or  flower-pots  filled  with  clean 
sand  (made  clean  by  stirring  in  water  and  pour- 
ing off  the  cloudy  water),  a  handful  of  wheat,  and 
Sach's  compressed  tablets*. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND  METHOD 

To  prepare  the  pupils  for  this  and  the  next  lesson, 
the  teacher  should  present  the  following  introductory 
facts  in  as  simple  a  way  as  possible : — 


*Note. — The  tablets  to  be  used  in  this  lesson,  can 
be  obtained  from  Edward  F.  Bigelow,  Stamford, 
Conn.,  at  loc  a  box.  Each  tablet  is  composed  of  the 
following  ingredients : — 

Common  salt   (sodium  chloride),  23^  grains. 

Plaster  of  Paris  (calcium  sulphate),  2^  grains. 

Epsom  salts  (magnesium  sulphate),  23^  grains. 

Phosphate  of  lime  (calcium  phosphate),  23^2 
grains. 

Salt-petre   (potassium  nitrate),  5  grain§. 

Compounds  of  iron  and  chlorine  (ferric  chloride), 
i-io  grain. 


ELEMENTARY   AGRICULTURE 


11 


12  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 

Chemists  have  found  that  all  the  different  sub- 
stances of  the  world  can  be  separated  into  about 
eighty  different  things.  These  are  called  elements. 
Iron,  gold,  silver,  tin,  carbon,  sulphur,  etc.,  are  ele- 
ments. No  one  has  been  able  to  separate  them  into 
different  things.  Gold  cannot  be  separated  into  any- 
thing but  gold.  For  centuries  men  tried  to  make  gold 
out  of  other  things,  but  they  failed.  Water  is  not  an 
element ;  it  is  a  compound.  A  chemist  can  separate  it 
into  tv^^o  gases,  hydrogen  and  oxygen. 

All  living  things  are  made  up  of  different  com- 
pounds of  elements.  The  starch  of  corn  is  a  <:om- 
pound  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen.  Only  a  few 
of  the  eighty  elements  are  necessary  for  the  growth 
of  plants  and  animals.  The  following  elements  are 
commonly  found  in  plants,  and  the  first  ten  are  abso- 
lutely necessary  for  good  plant  growth :  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  carbon,  nitrogen,  iron,  potassium,  phos- 
phorus, calcium,  sulphur,  magnesium,  sodium,  chlo- 
rine, and  silicon.  Oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen  are 
invisible  gases,  so  we  do  not  see  them.  Gold  and  sul- 
phur occur  as  free  elements.  Calcium  is  not  ordinarily 
seen,  but  ordinary  quicklime  is  either  calcium  or  mag- 
nesium combined  with  oxygen.  Silicon  and  oxygen 
combined  make  up  the  large  part  of  sand.  Salt  is  a 
compound  of  sodium  and  chlorine.  A  green  plant  is 
mostly  water.  Of  the  other  substances,  carbon  makes 
up  nearly  one-half ;  nitrogen  comes  next ;  and  there  are 
smaller  amounts  of  other  elements. 

No  plant  can  grow  unless  supplied  with  the  first 
ten     elements     mentioned     above.     The    soil    furnishes 


ELEMENTARY    AGRICULTURE  13 

iron,  sulphur,  magnesium,  sodium,  chlorine,  and  silicon ; 
a  farmer  does  not  need  to  give  special  attention 
to  these.  The  carbon  dioxide  gas  of  the  air  fur- 
nishes carbon;  water  furnishes  hydrogen  and  oxygen; 
and  the  remaining  elements,  nitrogen,  potassium, 
phosphorus,  and  calcium,  are  often  insufficient  in 
the  soil,  and  must  be  supplied  if  a  good  crop  is  to 
grow.  So  these,  particularly  the  first  three,  are  the 
elements  that  the  farmers  buy  in  their  fertilizers. 

Now  these  little  tablets,  described  in  the  note, 
contain  the  plant  food  of  the  soil  and  of  the  complete 
commercial  fertilizers.  To  demonstrate  the  effect  of 
fertilizing  the  soil,  proceed  as  follows: 

Fill  two  cans  or  flower-pots  with  clean  sand. 
Plant  six  grains  of  wheat  in  each.  Keep  one  moist 
with  rain-water.  Keep  the  other  in  the  same  condi- 
tion as  to  moisture,  to  which  has  been  added  plant 
food  at  the  rate  of  two  compressed  tablets  to  each 
pint  of  water. 

At  first  there  will  be  no  difference  in  the  growth, 
but  in  two  or  three  weeks,  when  the  food  stored  up 
in  the  grain  is  exhausted,  the  plants  in  the  first  can 
will  grow  but  little,  while  those  in  the  second  will 
grow  vigorously.  Such  substances,  when  applied  to 
soil,  are  known  as  fertilizers. 

How  to  know  what  kind  of  plant  food  the  soil 
needs  is  a  difficult  problem.  Many  times  certain  fertil- 
izers are  added  to  the  soil,  which  produce  no  results. 
It  is  important  to  know  the  needs  of  the  soil  with 
respect  to  an  intended  crop.  Tests  are  explained  in 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  44.  The  tests  in  Circular  No.  18 


14  ONE    HUNDBEO    LESSONS    IN 

are  simple  enough  to  be  worked  out  by  any  eighth  graile 
pupil. 

The  following  table  shows  the  composition  of  a 
typical  soil,  contaming  loo  pounds  of  matter.  It  will 
be  noted  that  all  these  elements  and  compounds  enter 
into  the  plant  as  food: 


1 


Water 

Carbon ^       12.G7  lbs. 

Silica   71.55 

Aluminum    6.94 

Iron    5.17 

Magnesium  1.08 

Soda     43 

Sulphuric    acid 04 

85.21  lbs. 

Nitrogen .12 

Phosphoric  acid   43 

Potash    35 

Lime   1.22 


2.12  lbs. 

The  first  and  second  groups  given  above  are  more 
or  less  constant  in  the  soil  and  in  sufficient  quantities  that 
the  farmer  need  not  concern  himself  about  supplying 
them.  The  third  group,  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  potash 
and  lime,  although  constituting  so  small  a  portion  of  the 
soil,  must  be  held  up  to  a  good  standard  amount  and 
proportion  or  the  plant  cannot  grow.  These  elements 
are  often  used  up  in  the  soil  and  must  be  artificially 
supplied  by  fertilizers  of  various  kinds. 


ELEMEWTAKY    AGKICULTUKE  15 

The  following  table  shows  the  composition  of   lOO 
pounds  of  wheat  plants  : 

Carbon    47. G9 

Water    45.8G 


93.55  lbs. 


Sodium    09 

Magnesium     20 

Sulphuric  acid    31 

Iron    04 

Chlorine     OG 

Silica    2.75 


3.45  lbs. 


Nitrogen     1.60 

Phosphoric  acid .45 

Potash     66 

Lime    29 


3.00  lbs. 

This  table  is  interesting  in  that  it  shows  that  so 
small  a  per  cent,  of  the  composition  of  the  plant  is  made 
up  of  the  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potash  and  lime — the 
elements  that  exist  in  so  small  a  proportion  in  the  soil ; 
yet  it  is  this  small  proportion  of  these  elements  with 
which  the  farmer  must  concern  himself  in  intelligent" 
j)ractice. 


16  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  VI 

Title.— Plant  Foods. 

Season. — Any  time.    May  be  a  Winter  study. 

Object. — To  study  the  effects  of  fertilizing  compounds 

on  the  growth  of  wheat  plants. 
Material. — Manure,  nitrate  of  soda,  muriate  of  potash, 

and  acid  phosphate,  ten  5-inch  flower-pots  or  tin 

cans,  wheat,  and  about  one-half  bushel  of  poor  soil. 

Any  interested  boy  can  get  this  soil  even  in  the 

Winter  time. 

gUBJECT-MATTEB  AND   METHOD 

Have  these  commercial  fertilizers  before  the 
class  for  observation.  Fill  each  of  the  pots  with  soil, 
and  add  plant  food  to  the  different  pots  as  follows : 

1.  Nothing. 

2.  Nitrate  of  soda   (one-half  teaspoonful). 

3.  Acid  phosphate  (one  teaspoonful). 

4.  Muriate  of  potash   (one-fourth  teaspoonful). 

5.  Nitrate  of  soda  and  acid  phosphate. 

6.  Nitrate  of  soda  and  muriate  of  potash. 

7.  Acid  phosphate  and  muriate  of  potash. 

8.  Nitrate  of  soda,  acid  phosphate,  and  muriate 
of  potash. 

9.  Same  as  No.  8,  but  double  the  amount  of  each. 

10.  Stable  manure,  about  six  ounces. 

Mix  the  fertilizers  into  the  soil;  then  plant  about 


ELEMENTAEY  AGBICULTUEE  17 

a  dozen  grains  of  wheat  in  each  pot.  Label  each  pot 
with  the  names  of  the  fertilizers  used.  Place  the  pots 
in  a  window  or  light  place,  and  keep  the  soil  moist- 
ened. When  the  wheat  seedlings  come  up,  thin  out 
to  the  same  number  in  each  pot.  Note  the  difference 
in  the  color  of  the  leaves  in  each  pot.  Which  fertil- 
izers give  the  greatest  increase  in  growth? 

Make  a  complete  record  of  this  experiment  in  the 
note-book. 

Note. — Those  who  cannot  readily  secure  the  fer- 
tilizers for  this  lesson,  may  get  a  sufficient  amount  for 
this  experiment,  by  writing  to  the  author,  and  enclos- 
ing 50  cents  to  cover  cost  of  the  material. 

Practical  Problems, 


The  usual  prices  of  the  common  fertilizers  are  as 
follows : 

Nitrate  of  soda,  $57.00  per  ton. 

Acid  Phosphate,  $12.50  per  ton. 

Muriate  of  potash,  $42.00  per  ton. 

How  much  would  a  pound  of  each  cost? 

When  a  farmer  speaks  of  a  fertilizer  as  being 
2:8:10,  he  means  that  it  contains  2%  nitrogen,  8% 
phosphoric  acid,  and  10%  potash. 

How  would  400  pounds  of  fertilizer  of  this  type 
be  made  up? 

The  use  of  dirt  to  fill  out  to  a  ton  basis,  either  in 
purchase  or  application  is  to  be  condemned, 


18 


ONE    HUNDBED    LESSONS    IN 


2 

At  the  College  of  Agriculture,  Cornell  University, 
two  tons  of  manure  that  had  been  weighed  and  ana- 
lyzed were  left  exposed  from  April  25  to  September 
2.2^  with  the  following  results : — 

April  25.  Sept.  22 

Total  weight  4000  lbs.  1730  lbs. 

Nitrogen    19 . 6  lbs  7 .  72  lbs. 

Phosphoric  acid    14.8  lbs.  7.79  lbs. 

Potash    36.     lbs.  8.65  lbs. 

What  was  the  value  of  the  nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid,  and  potash  in  this  manure  on  April  25,  and  on 
September  22?  (Use  the  values  given  above).  How 
.much  was  lost?  Was  the  part  lost  more  or  less  valu- 
able than  the  part  not  lost?     Why? 

There  are  two  ways  to  prevent  such  losses, — the 
manure  may  be  hauled  and  spread  on  the  land  every 
few  days,  or  it  may  be  kept  in  covered  sheds. 


A  WASTE  OF  MANURE 
(Courtesy  of  B.   F-  Jobnson  Pul>.   Co.) 


ELEMENTABY  AGRICULTUBE  19 

3 

A  good  fertilizer  for  timothy  hay  has  been  found 
to  be  one  containing  200  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda. 
100  pounds  of  acid  phosphate,  and  50  pounds  of  mu- 
riate of  potash,  per  acre. 

How  much  would  this  cost  per  acre? 

What  percentage  of  each  would  this  fertilizer 
contain? 

About  how  much  hay  at  the  price  in  your  neigh- 
borhood would  be  worth  this  much? 

(Data  for  this  lesson  was  adapted  from  the  Cor- 
nell Rural  vSchool  Leaflets.) 

4 

To  see  the  effect  of  lime  on  clay  soil,  make  two  clay 
balls,  one  with  water,  and  the  other  with  lime-water,  and 
set  aside  to  dry.  In  a  few  days  examine  and  see  which 
is  more  mellow. 

Repeat  the  experiment  with  water  and  hvunus- 
water  and  note  the  result. 

Is  lime  used  on  soils  in  your  neighborhood? 

References  : — Id. — Pages  22-26. 
G.  &  M.— Pages  37-41. 


20  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  VII 

Title. — Slopes  and  Drainage. 

Season. — Any  season. 

Object. — To   teach   slopes   by   means   of  observation, 

and  to  show  their  human  interest  ^'alue. 
Material. — A  hillside  in  view. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 

Take  the  class  to  observe  a  slopej  and  bring  out 
the  following  points: — 

Where  have  you  seen  slopes  before? 

When  are  slopes  a  good  thing,  and  when  not  a 
good  thing? 

What  do  you  see  on  these  slopes?  What  things 
are  on  other  slopes? 

Would  it  be  better  to  have  trees  on  this  slope? 
Why? 

WouJd  it  be  well  to  plow  this  slope?  Are  there 
any  washed  places? 

Where  does  the  slope  wash  most^  where  plowed 
or  wooded? 

Explain  how  the  forests  hold  the  soil  on  the 
slopes. 

Have  pupils  show  the  slant  of  this  slope  with 
rulers.  Ask  them  to  find  pictures  of  other  slopes  in 
their  books.  Make  drawing  sketches  of  slopes,  or 
models  in  sand. 


ELBMENTABY  AGBICULTUlUC  21 


LESSON  VIII 

Title.— The  Root  System  of  the  Plant. 
Season. — Spring  or  Autumn.   May  be  a  Winter  study. 
Object. — To  learn  the  different  kinds  of  plant  roots. 
Material. — Whole  plants  of  clover,  grass,  turnip,  and 
as  many  others  as  can  be  secured. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND    METHOD 

The  root  system  of  the  plant  consists  of  the  entire 
group  of  roots  upon  the  plant.  There  are  two  kinds 
of  root  systems: — 

(a)  Tap-root, — central  main  root  with  smaller 
roots  coming  out  from  it. 

(b)  Fibrous, — many  roots  of  nearly  the  same 
size. 

Either  of  these  two  types  may  have  either  slender 
or  fleshy  modifications. 

Dig  up  a  clover  plant,  and  remove  the  soil  from 
it.  Observe  that  it  has  a  strong  central  root  which 
joins  the  stem.     Make  a  drawing  of  this. 

Dig  up  a  single  grass  plant,  with  as  many  of  its 
roots  as  possible,  and  remove  the  soil  from  them. 
Observe  the  many  similar  roots  projecting  from  the 
stem  at  or  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.    Draw. 

Make  a  list  of  the  common  plants  and  classifjj 
them  as  to  the  character  of  the  root  system. 

The  amount  of  £ood  material  taken  in  by  the  plant 


22  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 

depends  largely  upon  the  amount  of  feeding  root  surface 
there  is. 

Select  some  plant,  as  corn,  for  example,  carefully 
dig  a  trench  around  it,  and  remove  the  ball  oi 
earth,  containing  most  of  the  roots.  Remove  and 
wash  as  much  of  the  soil  from  the  roots  as  possible. 
Remove  and  measure  each  root  separately,  and  find 
the  total  length  of  the  whole  root  system. 

Methods  of  cultivation  should  take  into  account 
that  many  roots,  especially  in  the  growing  season, 
are  near  the  surface.  Deep  cultivation  will  destroy 
all  such  roots,  and  to  that  extent  cut  off  the  food  sup- 
ply of  the  plant.     See  Figure. 

Make  the  drawings  of  each  of  the  types  of  roots 
referred  to  above,  and  in  addition,  the  drawings  of  a 
fleshy  tap-root,  such  as  the  turnip  or  radish.  Fill  out 
the  following  table: — 


Slender  tap-roots.  Fleshy    tap-roots.  Fibrous   root? 


References: — Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  2;\Ti^ — pp.  5-11 
Id. — Pages  27-31.     G.  &  M. — Pages  29-30. 


ELEMENTARY   AGRICULTURE 


23 


W0y 


ROOT    SYSTEM    OF    A    PLANT 

Showing  distribution   of  roots  with  reference   to   surface   of  the   soil    and 

soil  ^moisture,   and    also    effect   of    deep    and    shallow    cultivation. 


^^X^lHiiA/^^ 


'^e 


'^NIVLftSiTY 


OF 


24  ONE    HUNDBEO    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  IX 

Title.— Root-Hairs. 
Season. — At  any  time. 

Object. — To  learn  the  use  of  the  root-hairs  of  plants. 
Material. — Small  seeds,  wheat  or  radish,  newspaper 
or  blotting  paper,  and  water. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

The  root-hairs  are  the  absorbing  organs  of  the 
plant.  They  have  the  power  to  transfer  the  water 
and  the  plant  food  from  the  soil  to  the  rootlets. 

Put  some  small  seeds,  that  have  been  soaked  in 
water  about  twenty-four  hours,  between  two  layers 
of  blotting  paper.  Keep  the  covering  moist,  and  in 
two  or  three  days  roots  will  develop,  covered  with  a 
thick  fuzz  of  root-hairs.  Make  a  drawing  of  these 
to  show  the  zone  of  root  hairs  and  length.  Select  a  seed 
with  a  straight  root,  and  lay  it  aside  on  a  moist  blotting 
paper,  and  mark  with  a  pencil  the  two  extreme  ends  of 
the  root-hair  zone.  Cover  with  a  glass  tumbler  and  set 
away  for  a  few  days.  Note  the  change  of  position 
and  method  of  growth  of  the  root-hair  zone. 

Note. — The  root-hair  may  be  considered  as  an 
elongated  bag  filled  with  a  liquid  denser  than  w^ter. 
When  two  water  solutions  of  different  concentrations  ire 
separted  by  a  thin  membrane,  the  less  dense  liquid  tends 
to  pass  through  the  membrane,  more  rapidly  than  the 
denser  liquid.    This  process  is  called  osmosis. 

This  principle  may  be  illustrated,  if  desired  by 
the  teacher,  from  the  common  demonstration  of  the 
broken  egg-shell  and  the  glass  of  water. 


ELEMENTARY   AGEICULTURE 


25 


Crack  the  large  end  of  an  egg  and  remove  a  part 
of  the  shell,  being  careful  not  to  break  the  shell  mem- 
brane. Remove  a  small  circle  of  the  shell,  about  a 
half  inch  in  diameter.  Remove  the  shell  in  the  same 
way  from  the  small  end,  over  an  area  equal  to  the 
diameter  of  a  glass  tube.  Pierce  the  shell  membrane 
at  this  end  v^ith  a  pin  and  glue  a  short  glass  tube 
exactly  over  the  hole  and  broken  shell  of  the  small 
end.  Nov^  fill  a  wide  mouthed  bottle  full  of  water, 
and  place  the  egg  on  the  bottle  so  that  the  exposed 
egg  membrane  of  the  large  end  remains  below  the 
surface  of  the  water. 

In  about  an  hour  the  contents  of  the  egg  will  be 


11 

,1 

11—4 

TO  SHOW  OSMOSIS 


26 


ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


seen  rising  in  the    glass    tube.     Explain    this    action. 
Make  a  drawing  of  the  apparatus. 

Root-hairs  have  the  power  of  taking  up  water  that 
adheres  to  soil  particles.  This  fact  is  fundamental.  If 
the  water  does  not  exist  as  films  adhering  to  soil  par- 
ticles, the  root-hairs  are  unable  to  do  their  work. 


DIAGRAM   OP  A  PLANT 
Showing    Its    most    important    relations :      sunlight,    moisture, 
and   soil.      (Courtesy   of   Prof.    B.    M.    Davis.) 


oxygen, 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE  27 


LESSON  X 

Title. — General  Study  of  Germination. 

Season. — At  any  time. 

Object. — To   learn   the   conditions    necessary   for   the 

germination  of  seeds. 
Material. — Pea  or  radish  seed,  four  or  five  pint  glass 

fruit-cans,  and  some  cotton. 

SUBJECT-MATTER    AND    METHOD 

(a)  Place  some  seeds  on  thoroughly  moistened 
cctton  at  the  bottom  of  can  No.  i,  keep  the  seeds 
in  a  warm  place  and  water  each  day. 

(b)  Place  other  seeds  on  dry  cotton  in  the  boi- 
tom  of  can  No.  2,  and  do  not  water  at  any  time. 

(c)  Place  some  seeds  on  cotton,  as  before,  in  the 
can  No.  3,  and  fill  the  can  with  water  that  has  been 
boiled  and  cooled.  Seal  the  can  tightly,  and  keep  in  a 
warm  place. 

AVhen  the  seeds  have  germinated  in  (a),  examine 
the  seeds  in  the  other  cans,  and  compare  with  the 
growth  of  those  in  the  first. 

What  'Conditions  for  germination  are  necessary, 
as  shown  by  these  experiments? 

In  the  above  experiments  it  is  found  that  seeds 
will  not  germinate  without  water.  The  question 
arises,  does  water  enter  the  seed? 

Weigh  two  beans  of  nearly  the  same  size.     Put 


28  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 

one  in  water  and  leave  the  other  dry.  After  24  hours 
compare  each  as  to  weight  and  size.  Draw  a 
conclusion. 

Place  a  lima  bean  in  water  and  observe  the  hourly 
changes  in  the  appearance  of  the  bean.  Make  a  series 
of  drawings  to  show  these  changes. 

It  may  be  shown  that  seeds  exert  a  strong  force 
in  their  absorption  of  water  and  in  germination. 

Fill  a  bottle  with  dry  pea  seeds,  and  add  as  much 
water  as  the  bottle  will  hold.  Cork  tightly,  and 
secure  the  stopper  by  means  of  a  wire.  Set  away  24 
hours  and  note  the  result. 

To  show  the  function  of  seed  cotyledons,  remove 
the  two  cotyledons  of  a  germinating  bean  and  insert  the 
growing  roots  through  a  piece  of  mosquito  netting  tied 
over  a  tumbler  into  the  water  wiith  which  the  glass  is 
filled.     Note  and  explain  the  growth. 

References : — 

Id. — Pages  "j^j  to  80. 

Farmers'  Bulletins    260  and  123. 

G.  &  M.— Pages  62  to  70. 


ELEMENTAEY  AGEICULTUEE  29 


LESSON  XI 

Title. — Structure  of  Seeds. 

Season. — At  any  time. 

Object. — To  study  the  structure  of  t5^ical  seeds. 

Material. — I^ima  beans,   pen-knife,   paper   and  pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 

To  facilitate  the  study  of  seeds  they  should  be 
left  in  water  over  night. 

Observe  the  following  points  of  the  bean,  and 
make  a  sentence  note  of  each  of  the  words  in  black 
type. 

1.  Markings  on  the  surface: 

(a)  Scar  or  hilum  where  the  seed  was  attached 
to  the  pod. 

(b)  Ne^r  the  hilum  a  small  opening,  the 
micropyle. 

2.  Remove  the  coat  or  testa.  Near  the  hilum  a 
small  pointed  body,  the  caulicle,  will  be  seen. 

Separate  the  halves  or  cotyledons,  observe  that 
the  caulicle  bears  two  small  leaves,  the  plumule. 

The  cotyledons,  caulicle,  and  plumule  constitute 
the  embryo. 

Make  a  drawing  of  the  whole  bean  showing  these 
parts,  and  of  the  single  cotyledon  with  the  caulicle 
and  plumule  in  place, 


30  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 

Study  the  grain  of  corn,  making  notes  upon  the 
following  points : — 

I.  The  general  shape.  The  embryo  lies  in  the 
groove. 

Cut  the  grain  lengthwise,  at  right  angles  to  the 
flat  surface,  and  make  out  the  caulicle,  plumule,  and 
cotyledon. 

The  hard  outer  portion  is  called,  the  endosperm. 

Make  a  drawing  to  show  these  parts. 

Always  name  every  part  of  the  drawing. 

Note. — All  seeds  except  the  seeds  of  conifers,  are 
of  one  of  these  two  types.  In  the  bean,  there  are  two 
cotyledons,  «ind  the  food  material  of  the  seed  is  stored 
in  these  cotyledons. 

In  the  corn  there  is  only  one  cotyledon,  and  the 
food  material  is  stored  outside  of  the  embryo,  in  a 
part  called  the  endosperm. 

References: — Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  260,^.  3;  and 
No.   III. 

G.  &  M.— Pages  79-81. 

Note — Send  for  ''school  set  of  economic  seeds,"  to 
Edgar  Brown,  Seed  Laboratory,  Dept.  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,  D.  C. 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE  31 


LESSON  XII 

Title. — Selecting  Seed  Corn  in  the  Field  and  Storing 

It  for  the  Winter. 
Season. — In  the  Autumn. 
Object. — To  learn  how  to  select  the  seed  corn  in  the 

field  and  how  tp  store  it  until  planting  time. 
Material. — ^A  field   of  ripened  corn  or  several  stalks 

brought  into  the  school  room  for  observation. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND    METHOD 

If  possible,  take  the  class  into  the  field  to  select 
the  corn,  but  if  not,  have  an  armful  of  stalks  of  corn 
brought  into  the  school  room. 

I.  The  first  point  to  notice  in  selecting  an  ear  for 
seed  is  its  position  on  the  stalk.  The  ear  should  be 
set  about  mid-way  up  the  stalk,  not  too  near  the  bot- 
tom nor  too  near  the  top.  Next,  notice  the  shank  that 
holds  the  ear.  It  should  not  be  too  long,  so  that  it 
holds  the  ear  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  stalk. 
On  the  other  hand  it  should  not  be  so  short  that  it 
causes  the  ear  to  stand  upright  against  the  stalk. 
The  ear  should  come  from  the  stalk,  slightly  bending 
downward  at  the  tip.     See  the  illustration  given. 

The  stalk  should  be  of  medium  size,  strong  and 
tapering. 

II.  The  next  point  to  observe,  is  the  general 
shape  and    development    of    each    ear    selected.     For 


32 


ONE    HUNDBED    LESSONS    IN 


hasty  selection  in  the  field,  be  governed  by  the  fol- 
lowing points: — 

1.  Length  of  ear,  between  8  and  lo  inches. 

2.  Circumference  of  ear,  about  three-fourths  the 
length. 

3.  Rows  of  grains  straight  and  running  well  out 
to  the  tip  and  butt  of  the  ear.  Grains  well  shaped 
and  firmly  set  in  place,  deeply  dented,  and  all  o£  the 
same  purity  of  color. 


A  GOOD    STALK  OP  CORN 
(Courtesy  of  B.  F.   Johnson  Pub.  Co.) 


ELEMENTARY    AGRICULTURE  33 

Governed  by  all  these  points  in  the  selection  of 
the  ear,  the  student  or  farmer  may  select  as  much  as 
is  needed  for  his  seed,  and  prepare  to  store  it  for  the 
winter. 

It  is  better  to  select  more  than  is  needed,  so 
that  the  best  type  of  ears  may  be  chosen  at  planting 
time. 

III.  In  storing  thfe  corn,  it  should  either  be  hung  by 
the  husks  torn  back  from  the  ear,  or  be  placed  in  racks 
made  of  narrow  strips  with  spaces  between.  In  any 
case,  the  corn  should  be  stored  in  dry,  well-ventilated 
places,  in  such  a  way  that  there  may  be  a  free  circula- 
tion of  air  about  each  ear. 

For  a-  school-room  method,  forty  or  fifty  ears 
might  be  hung  in  the  attic  or  in  the  room  for  that 
matter,  to  be  used  later  in  corn-scoring  and  in  the  ger- 
minating tests. 

For  the  storing,  scoring,  and  final  selection  of 
seed  corn,  the  use  of  a  special  farm  laboratory  build- 
ing is  strongly  advised.  Such  a  building  on  the  farm 
would  facilitate  many  important  operations,  and  make 
possible  many  others  that  would  benefit  the  farmer's 
business. 

References: — Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  229.  Id. — 
pages  69  to  "J^. 


34  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  XIII 

Title. — Scoring  Seed  Corn. 
Season. — Winter  or  early  Spring. 
Object. — To  learn  how  to  judge  ears  of  corn. 
Material. — An  ear  of  corn  for  each  member  of  the 
class,  paper  and  pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

i     "     ' 

Ten  ears  of  corn  are  usually  scored  for  each  sam- 
ple of  corn  judged,  but  in  this  case,  perhaps  one  ear 
for  each  pupil  will  be  sufficient  for  a  lesson.  If  time 
and  material  permit,  it  would  be  well  for  each  pupil 
to  score  ten  ears. 

The  following  score-card  is  used  by  the  Indiana 
Corn  Growers'  Association.  Let  each  pupil  copy  the 
score-card  in  the  permanent  note-book,  and  grade  his 
ear  of  corn  on  each  point.  The  number  opposite  each 
of  the  twelve  points,  represents  the  perfect  grade. 


ELEMENTAEY  AGRICULTUBE 


35 


4M 


#•#. 


2.  ■m*^%^ 


TYPES   OF  BUTTS  AND  TIPS   OF   EARS  OF   CORN 

No.   4  is  a  good  tip.     No.   11,   a  good  butt. 

(Courtesy   of  Purdue  University.) 


36  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 

Name  of  variety Table  No . 

Name  of  Scorer Sample  No. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

' 

9 

10 

1.  Trueness   to 

Type  or  Breed                10 
Characteristics 

■ 

2.  Shape   of    Bars                 5 

3.  Color  of  Grain  and  Cob  10 

4.  Vitality    or    Seed 

Condition                           10 

5.  Tips   of   Ears                     5 

6.   Butts  of  Ears                    5 

7.  Kernel    Uniformity         10 

8.  Kernel    Shape                  10 

9.  Length  of  Ears                5 

10.  Circumference   of  Ears  5 

11.  Space  between 

Rows    and    Kernels        10 

12.  Proportion  of 

Corn    to    Cob                    16 

Total 100 

__ 

ELEMENTABY   AGBICULTUBE  37 

Explanation  of  th^  Score-card. 

1.  Trueness  to  type  or  breed.  Ten  points  perfect. 
The  ear  should  be  true  to  the  breed  character- 
istics in  size,  shape,  color,  shape  of  kernel,  etc. 

2.  Shape  of  ear.     5  points  perfect. 

The  ear  should  be  full  and  strong  in  the  middle, 
and  should  not  taper  too  rapidly  towards  the  tip. 
Rows  should  be  straight. 

3.  Color  of  grain  and  cob.     10  points  perfect. 
The  color  should  be  true  to  the  variety,  and  free 

from  mixture.  White  corn  should  have  white  cobs, 
and  yellow  corn,  red  cobs.  Cut  about  one  point  for 
five  or  six  colored  grains. 

4.  Vitality  or  seed  condition.    10  points  perfect. 
The  ear  should  be  well  matured,  firm,  and  sound. 

The  germ  should  be  large,  fresh,  and  vigorous  looking. 

5.  Tips  of  ears.     5  points  perfect. 

The  tip  should  be  regular  and  not  too  tapering. 
Tip  should  be  well  covered,  with  straight  rows  of 
of  regular  kernels.  Cut  one-half  point  for  tips  ex- 
posed one  inch. 

6.  Butts  of  ears.     5  points  perfect. 

The  rows  of  kernels  should  extend  in  regular 
order  over  the  end  of  the  cob,  leaving  a  depression 
when  the  shank  is  removed. 

7.  Kernel  uniformity.     10  points  perfect. 

The  kernels  should  be  uniform  in  size,  color, 
shape,  and  indentation,  and  true  to  the  variety  type. 

8.  Kernel  shape.     10  points  perfect. 

The  kernels  should  be  deep  and  so  shaped  that 
their  edges  touch  from  tip  to  crown.  The  tips  of  the 
kernels  shoald  be  full  and  strong. 


38 


ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE  39 

9.  Length  of  ears.     5  points'  perfect. 

The  length  should  conform  to  the  standard  for 
the  variety  used.  From  eight  to  ten  inches  is  the 
usual  standard  length.  Cut  one  point  for  each  inch  of 
deficiency. 

10.  Circumference  of  ears.     5  points  perfect. 
The  circumference  should  be  in  proportion  to  the 

length,  that  is,  about  three-fourths  the  length,  meas- 
ured at  one-third  the  distance  from  butt  to  tip.  For 
each  inch  defioiency  or  excess,  cut  ^  point. 

11.  Space  between  rows  and  kernels.  10  points 
perfect. 

The  furrows  between  rows  should  be  wide 
enough  to  allow  the  ear  to  dry  out  readily,  but  not  so 
wide  as  to  lose  in  proportion  of  corn  to  cob.  Much 
space  between  kernels  is  highly  objectionable. 

There  should  be  not  less  than  16  rows,  and  6  or 
7  grains  to  an  inch  in  each  row. 

12.  Proportion  of  corn  to  cob.     15  points  perfect. 
The  proportion  should  be  determined  by  weight. 

The  proportion  of  corn  to  cob  should  not  be  less  than 
86%.    Cut  i^%  for  each  per  cent  below  the  standard. 
References: — Purdue    Bulletin,    No.    no, — Purdue 
University,  Lafayette,  Ind. 


40 


ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


ELEMENTABY  AGBICULTURE  41 


LESSON  XIV 

Title. — Selecting  and  Testing  Seed  Com. 

Season. — March,  April,  or  May. 

Object. — To  teach  the  student  how  to  select  the  seed 

com  and  make  the  germinating  test. 
Materials. — A   germinating   box   as   described   below, 

ten  or  twelve  ears  of  corn  as  true  to  the  following 

standard  as  possible: 

1.  Good  cylindrical  shape,  well  rounded  at  the  tips 
and  butts. 

2.  Length,  about  8  to  12  inches,  and  circumfer- 
ence 6  to  9  inches,  according  to  the  type. 

3.  Uniform  color  and  size  of  grain,  straight  rows 
of  kernels,  filling  up  the  furrows  solidly. 

4.  Cob,  not  too  large  in  proportion  to  the  ear. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND  METHOD 

The  teacher  should  have  before  the  class  as  many 
ears  of  corn  as  convenient  for  this  lesson.  A  hun- 
dred ears  would  be  the  desired  number. 

Take  a  shallow  box  and  partly  fill  it  with  fine 
sand.  Thoroughly  moisten  the  sand.  Over  the  sand 
place  a  cloth  which  has  been  checked  into  100  two- 
inch  squares  with  an  indelible  pencil,  or  better,  with 
ink.  Number  the  squares  from  i  to  100,  ten  squares 
in  each  row,  and  ten  rows. 

Now  take  each   ear  separately  and   remove  five 


42  ONE    HUNDBED    LESSONS    IN 

kernels,  taking  them  from  different  parts  of  the  ear. 
Take  one  from  the  butt,  three  from  the  middle,  and 
one  from  the  tip.  Turn  the  ear  each  time  so  as  not 
to  get  them  from  the  same  row.  Place  the  kernels  in 
the  numbered  square,  a  square  for  each  ear,  and  lay 
the  ear  aside  and  number  it  to  correspond  with  the 
square.  Cover  the  kernels  on  the  squares  with  a 
moist  cloth.  Over  this  place  a  layer  of  moist  sand. 
Keep  the  sand  moist  and  watch  daily  for  the  germi- 
nations. The  ear  that  does  not  show  all  the  five  ger- 
minating in  a  few  days,  should  not  be  planted  in  the 
field. 

This  is  a  very  important  and  practical  lesson,  and 
one  that  every  farmer  boy  should  work  out. 

Have  the  pupils  make  a  drawing  of  the  germina- 
ting box,  and  write  a  record  of  the  lesson  and  its 
results. 

Emphasize  the  fact  that  this  work  could  be  done 
by  the  farmer  at  a  time  when  he  is  not  so  busy  with 
other  necessary  work,  and  that  this  is  a  sure  test  of 
germination.  If  all  the  farmers'  seeds  would  germi- 
nate, their  crops  would  be  increased  many  fold. 

The  practice  of  smoking  the  seed-corn  before  shell- 
ing and  planting  has  proven  an  effective'  preventative 
against  the  corn-root  louse  and  other  insect  pests  of  the 
sprouting  grain. 

References: — Farmers'  Bulletin    No.  253. 


ELEMENTAEY   AGRICULTURE 


43 


a  > 

o 

S  Q 

c  Q 


**''^i  ff^'rrJ*^,g■ 


44 


ONE    HUNDBED    LESSONS    IN 


A  GOOD   BAR  OP  CORN 
(Courtesy   of  B.   F.   Johnson   Pub.   Co.) 


A  POOR  BAR  OP  CORN 
(Courtesy  of  B.   P.   Johnson  Pub. 


Co.) 


ELEMENTABY  AGftlCULTUftE 


46 


y  o 

&  o 

c 

3  pi 


46 


ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


RACKS    FOR    STORING    SEED    CORN 
(Courtesy  of  Purdue  University.) 


ELEMENTARY   AGEICULTURE 


47 


at   H-c 

c  o 


48  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  XV 

Title. — Growing  Musk-melons. 

Season. — Spring  months. 

Object. — To  leam  how  to  grow  good  musk-melons. 

Materials. — Good  melon  seeds,  sod,  spade,  and  boxes. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

This  lesson  may  be  given  in  the  school-room  early 
in  April.  Have  at  hand  melon  seeds  of  the  best  qual- 
ity. Before  time  for  the  agriculture  class,  send  two 
boys  out  with  a  spade  to  cut  several  turfs  of  sod, 
about  six  inches  square,  as  many  pieces  as  you  mean 
to  have  hills  of  melon.  If  the  grassy  side  is  firmly 
matted,  slightly  loosen  the  fibres,  but  not  enough  to 
allow  the  turf  to  fall  apart.  Place  the  sod,  bottom 
side  up,  in  a  shallow  box  of  wood  or  pasteboard;  if 
the  earth  is  not  thick  enough,  ad'!  a  few  handfuls  of 
good  mealy  soil.  Plant  about  six  3r  eight  seeds  in 
this  soil.  Place  in  a  sunny  winuow  and  keep  warm 
and  moist. 

This  will  constitute  the  first  part  of  the  lesson, 
but  the  germinati  isr  se^ls  will  keep  up  the  interest 
in  the  experiment  for  many  days.  When  the  green 
seed-leaves  have  freed  themselves  from  the  shell,  no- 
tice which  are  the  thriftiest  plants,  and  remove  all  but 
the  best  t/o.  Care  for  these  tenderly,  and  they  will 
thrive  well,  free  from   frost  and  the  striped  beetle. 


ELEMENTAUY   AGHICULTUBE  49 

'i'licy  may  safely  acquire  three  or  four  true  leaves,  and 
1  c  five  or  six  inches  tall,  before  they  are  planted  out 
of  doors.  If  possible,  the  rest  of  this  experiment 
should  be  done  in  the  school  garden.  If  llicrc  is  no 
school  garden,  and  school  is  to  close  before  May,  the 
children  may  take  the  boxes  home,  and  set  the  melon 
plants  in  the  home  garden  as  follows: — 

When  the  warm  late  May-days  come,  dig  holes 
about  eight  inches  deep  and  six  feet  ai)art  in  the  sun- 
niest part  of  the  garden  ;  put  in  the  bottom  of  each 
hole  a  spadeful  of  old  well-rotted  manure;  cover  this 
with  two  inches  of  sand  or  fine  soil ;  and  on  this  place 
the  sod  with  the  growing  melons,  so  gently  that  they 
will  not  know  they  have  been  moved.  The  sod  should 
be  level  with  the  ground,  and  well  firmed  in  place.  See 
that  the  plants  never  suflFer  from  tliirst.  Keep  the 
weeds  pulled,  and  stir  the  surface  soil  about  the  hill 
often,  until  the  vines  begin  to  run. 

When  each  vine  has  set  about  a  half-dozen  mel- 
ons, pinch  ofi*  all  blossoms  that  form,  and  also  the 
tips  of  the  branches,  so  that  all  plant  food  may  go 
into  the  melons  first  chosen. 

Squash,  cucumber,  pumpkins,  and  water-melons, 
may  also  be  grown  in  the  same  way. 


50  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  XVI 

Title. — Garden  Making. 

**The  garden  is  a  lovesonie  thing,  God  wot : 

Rose  plot. 
Fringed  pool, 
Ferned   grot. 
The  veriest  school  of  peace ; 
And  yet  the  fool 

Contends  that  God  is  not  in  gardens. 
Not  in  gardens!     When  the  eve  is  cool  I 

Nay,  but  I  have  a  sign, 
'Tis  very  sure  God  walks  in  mine." 
Season. — April  and  May. 
Object. — To  teach  children  how  to  make  a  school  or 

home  garden,  and  to  form  the  garden  habit. 
Material. — Spade,    hoe,    yard-rule,    rake,    and    mixed 
fertilizer  or  compost. 

ST.'BJECT-MATTER   AND    METHOD 

If  not  practicable  to  have  a  garden  with  indi- 
vidual or  group  plots,  sel' ct  a  space  on  the  school 
grounds,  or  near  by,  on  wl^'ch  to  make  a  sample  gar- 
den, as  a  demonstration  Ic  on  from  which  the  pup'ls 
may  learn  hoAv  to  make  V  rW  liome  gardens. 

Select  an  ■'•■(-'A  of  rich  -  il  abcnit  4  iccX  wide  In  16 
feet  long,  and  thoroughly  clean  away  all  weeds  and 
trash  from  this  plot. 


62  ONE    HUNDRfiD    LESSONS    IN 

Spade  up  the  ground  as  deeply  as  possible. 
About  a  poinid  of  commercial  fertilizer  may  now  be 
sprinkled  ov.er  the  plot,  or  a  few  shovelfuls  of  well  • 
rotted  manure  may  be  worked  into  the  ground.  Rake 
over  the  plot  and  break  up  all  the  clods.  It  is  a  good 
plan  to  go  over  the  ground  with  the  hands,  crumbling 
the  soil  as  fine  as  meal.  Level  the  bed  up  slightly 
higher  than  the  rest  of  the  ground.  Stake  the  four 
corners  and  mark  off  a  sharp,  clean-cut  edge  for  the 
bed,  and  make  a  neat  clean  path  around  it. 

The  garden  is  now  ready  for  planting. 

References: — Farmers'  Bulletin  Nos.  154  and  255. 

Id. — Pages  179-180. 

G.  &  M. — Pages  130-133.  -.  . 


ELEMENTARY    AGRICULTURE  53 


LESSON  XVII 

Title. — Planting  the  Garden. 

Season. — Spring. 

Object. — To  teach  the  pupils  how  to  plant  the  seed  in 

the  garden. 
Material. — Seeds^   measuring-rule,   and  marker. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND    METHOD 

In  plenty  of  time  before  these  lessons  are  to  be 
given,  the  teacher  should  take  a  penny  collection  from 
the  pupils,  and  send  to  the  Home  Gardening  Associ- 
ation, Cleveland,  Ohio,  and  get  seed  packages.  Many 
of  the  seeds  might  easily  be  obtained  at  the  homes  of 
the  children.  Under  the  direction  of  the  teacher,  two 
or  three  of  the  pupils  should  mark  off  the  garden  for 
planting,  and  assist  in  the  planting,  while  all  the  rest 
of  the  children  observe.  They  may  then  return  to 
their  home  plots  and  do  the  work  themselves  more 
intelligently. 

The  accompanying  diagram  should  be  drawn  on 
the  board,  and  copied  by  the  pupils,  to  a  scale  of  ^ 
inch  to  the  foot  in  their  permanent  note-books,  before 
going  to  the  garden  for  this  lesson. 


54 


ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


GARDEN   PLOT. 
Scale :      One-fourth    inch    equals    one    foot. 


*    *    * 


*  Sweet  corn,   three   rows. 

(Three   grains   in    each    place.) 


Dwarf   bunch   beans,    two    rows. 

i 
•  *  Potatoes,    three    hills. 


miiLt****** 


♦  *=3 

*** 

***** 

*** 

I************** 


;       Cucumbers,    three    hilh 
I       Optional. 
Optional. 

Optional. 

Deets,    three   rows. 
Dwarf  peas,   two  rows. 
Onion   sets,    two    rows. 
Radishes,   three   rows. 

Lettuce,    three    rows. 
Flower   seeds. 


Mark  off  the  furrows  about  two  inches  deep 
across  the  bed  as  indicated  by  the  diagram.  Place 
the  seeds  in  the  furrow,  as  shown  by  the  star  marks 
in  tlie  (HagraniJ.  Cover  with  the  soil  about  one  inch  for 
smaller  seeds,  and  press  it  down  firmly  with  the  hands. 


ELEMENTARY   AGRICULTUEE  55 

Now  we  are  ready  for  the  seeds  to  grow.  Many  valu- 
able nature-study  lessons  may  be  given  in  the  school  as 
the  seeds  begin  to  germinate.  Try  to  create  a  spirit  of 
appreciative  interest  in  the  growing  plants  and  a  personal 
pride  in  the  care  of  the  child's  home  garden.  As  the 
garden  grows,  weeds  must  be  pulled,  insects  watched 
for,  and  replantings  made  if  necessary,  Upon  the 
skillful  presentation  of  these  lessons,  the  pupils  should  be 
able  to  make  home  gardens  and  plant  and  care  for 
them  successfully. 

There  should  be  some  instruction  in  the  growing 
of  plants  in  every  school-room  in  the  state.  Garden- 
ing is  recognized  as  one  of  the  best  all-round  helps 
in  the  education  of  the  child  and  is  a  very  excellent  and 
healthful  habit  to  form.  There  should  be  a  well  organ- 
ized school  garden  in  every  public  school  in  the  country. 
It  will  make  stronger  and  better  men  and  women.  It 
will  be  a  resource  for  them  through  all  the  coming  years. 

School  gardens  teach  appreciation  of  nature,  re- 
spect for  the  property  of  o'hers,  self-reliance,  helpful- 
ness, patience,  respect  for  labor,  and  habits  of  indus- 
try. They  furnish  useful  employment  as  well  as 
pleasant  amusement  for  children  who  might  seek  di- 
version in  idle  haunts  or  questionable  activities.  In 
garden  work,  children  learn  to  see  what  they  look  at, 
and  understand  what  they  see;  they  learn  skill  with 
their  hands,  systematic  methods,  business  experience, 
and  knowledge  of  gardening,  plants,  fruit,  insects, 
and  birds. 

The  following  table  is  a  good  device  to  use  in  con- 


56 


ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


nection  with  this  lesson.  Have  pupils  record  observa- 
tions made  in  their  gardens  under  the  following  heads 
placed  at  the  top  of  the  page  of  the  note-book : — 


Plant' 


Whfii 

Phil,  vd 


Hww  Uc<p        Disiftice 
Anail 


When 
Appear 


Injuries 

and 
Results 


SCHOOL    GARDEN     OF     WEST     VIRGINIA     UNIVERSITY,     NORMAL 
DEPARTMENT    SUMMER    SESSION 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE  57 


LESSON  XVIII 

Title.— Tree  Planting. 

Season. — Spring  or  Autumn. 

Object. — To  learn  how  to  set  out  a  tree. 

Material. — A  young  tree,  a  spade,  and  a  knife. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND    METHOD 

In  a  rural  school  all  the  classes  may  participate 
in  this  lesson. 

The  young  tree,  either  a  fruit  or  forest  tree,  hav- 
ing been  procured,  is  on  the  ground,  ready  for  plant- 
ing.* Have  some  of  the  pupils  dig  the  hole,  a  little 
deeper  than  the  one  from  w^hich  the  tree  came.  Al- 
low ample  room  for  all  the  roots.  While  this  is  being 
done,  the  teacher  may  review  all  the  reasons  for  the 
methods  employed  in  digging  out  the  tree.  Before 
placing  the  young  tree,  trim  away  all  the  injured  and 
broken  roots.  Place  some  fine  surface  soil  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  hole,  and  with  the  hands  work  fine  soil 
about  the  smaller  roots.  Bring  out  the  reason  for  all 
this.  Fill  the  earth  about  the  roots  carefully,  and 
pack  down  well.  If  the  soil  is.  too  dry,  a  small  pail  of 
water  may  be  poured  about  the  roots  before  all  the 
earth  is  put  into  the  hole.  Round  up  the  surface  so 
that  no  water  will  stand  next  to  the  tree,  and  cover 
with  a  fine  mulch  of  dust.  The  inverted  sod  may  be 
placed  on  top.  Now  the  tree  must  be  trimmed  back 
so    that    the    disturbed    balance    between    roots    and 


68  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 

branches  may  be  restored.  Make  this  point  clear. 
Let  the  pupils  do  all  the  work.  Have  the  pupils  make 
a  wish  about  the  tree,  and  you  have  concluded  a  les- 
son that  will  be  full  of  interest;  and  if  you  have  been 
enthusiastic  in  this  exercise,  a  real  and  permanent  in- 
terest in  trees  will  have  been  created  among  man\' 
in  the  class. 

"Who  does  his  duty 
Is  a  question  too  complex  for  me ; 
But  he,  I  venture  the  suggestion. 
Does  part  of  his  who  p'ants  a  tree." — Lowell. 

References: — Farmers'   Bulletin    No.   134. 

Note : — It  would  be  well  to  have  the  pupils  dig  wo 
the  tree  to  be  transplanted.  Dig  out  from  the  tree  as 
far  as  the  limbs  extend,  and  secure  as  many  roots  as 
possible,  in  a  ball  of  earth  to  be  removed  with  them. 


ELEMENTARY    AGRICULTURE  59 


LESSON  XIX 

Title.— Planting  a  Farm  Wood-lot.  . 

Season. — April,  May,  or  October. 

Object. — To  teach  the  pupils  how  to  plant  a  small 
nursery  for  the  wood-lot  and  to  realize  the  pos- 
sibilities of  such  plantings. 

Material. — One  hundred  two-year-old  seedlings  of 
the  Catalpa  speciosa.  These  may  be  obtained 
from  the  Thos.  Meehan  and  Sons  Nursery, 
Dreshertown,  Pa.,  at  one  cent  a  tree,  and  the  nec- 
essary money  could  be  easily  raised  in  the 
school.  A  plot  of  ground  near  the  school,  size 
30  feet  by  30  feet. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 

This  lesson  can  be  done  successfully  if  the 
teacher  will  send  for  the  seedlings,  or  plant  the  seed  in 
time,  in  a  box  of  earth  indoors,  and  see  to  it  that 
a  plot  of  ground,  as  mentioned  above,  is  plowed  or 
spaded  up  in  preparation  for  the  planting.  La}^  off 
the  ground  in  furrows  three  feet  apart.  Cross  furrow 
these  at  right  angles,  the  same  distance  apart.  Where 
the  furrows  cross,  a  seedling  is  to  be  planted.  Dig 
out  a  hole  about  six  or  seven  inches  deep  for 
each  seedling,  and  plant  each  one  as  directed  for  the 
single  tree  in  Lesson  18.  These  little  trees  will  now 
be  three  feet  apart,  and  after  about'  three  years  may 
be  thinned  to  six  feet  apart  by  transplanting  the  trees 


60 


ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


and  extending  the  grounds.  This  lesson  is  entirely 
practical,  and  may  be  conducted  in  any  country,  vil- 
lage, or  city  school. 

Have  the  pupils  draw  a  plot  of  the  grounds  and 
write  a  description  of  the  work  of  this  lesson  in  their 
agriculture  note-books. 

Note : — Black  Locust,  White  Willow,  Yellow  Pop- 
lar and  Osage  orange  are  good  wood-lot  trees  to  plant, 
and  they  yield  quick  returns. 

References  : — Farmers'  Bulletin   No.  173. 


:>- .  •s.f 


BEECH   WOOD   LOT 


ELEMENTARY   AGEICULTUEE  61 


LESSON  XX 

Title. — An  Excursion  to  the  Woods. 

Season. — Fall  or  Spring. 

Object. — To   study    some    elementary   forestry   condi- 

tions,  and  to  learn  the  names  of  some  forest  trees. 
Material. — Note-books    and    pencils,    with    the    pupils 

in  the  woods. 

SUBJECT-MATTER    AND    METHOD 

In  this  lesson  the  teacher  may  take  the  Avhole 
school  for  a  walk  in  the  wocds.  The  smaller  children 
will  not  lose  any  time  that  could  he  better  spent,  and 
the  class  in  agriculture  may  make  tlie  following  ob- 
servations,   under   the    teacher's   directions: — 

Note  (i)  the  comparative  temperatures  within 
and  without  the  forest. 

2.  The  rich  humus  soil  of  the  forest  floor,  and 
how  the  roots  and  leaf  mould  hold  the  moisture  and 
prevent  washing.  Point  out  examples  of  washes 
where  the  forest  has  been  cut  away,  and  explain  how 
the  soil  is  carried  to  the  streams,  and  its  effects  upon 
them. 

3.  Find  trees  of  virgin  growth  and  also  the  sec- 
ond growth.     Note  any  dangerous  fire-traps. 

4.  If  a  freshly  cut  stump  or  log  can  be  found, 
count  the  rings  of  growth  and  determine  the  age  of 
the  tree. 


62  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 

5.  Make  a  few  estimations  of  the  diameter  and 
heights  of  the  largest  trees.  Pupils  might  calculate 
the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  timber  in  a  large  tree,  and 
by  squaring  the  diameter  in  inches,  minus  4,  it  be- 
comes board  measure,  in  a  16  foot  log. 

6.  Make  a  list  in  the  note-book  of  the  names  of 
all  the  trees  you  can. 

7.  Point  out  the  iron  woods,  blue-beech,  hazel,  scrub 
oaks,  and  other  useless  ''tree-weeds,"  that  should  be 
removed  in  improvement  cuttings. 

When  the  pupils  return  from  the  woods,  have 
them  use  the  above  points  as  topics  to  write  of  the 
excursion  in  their  permanent  note-books. 

By   referring   to   Roth's   First  Book   of   Forestry, 
or   to    Pinchot's   Primer   of  Forestry,    many   valuable 
lessons  may  be  continued  in  this  woik. 
(See  Appendix.) 


ELEMENTARY    AGRICULTURE 


63 


LESSON  XXI 

Title. — Improving  the  Soil. 

Season. — A  lesson  for  Winter  text-book  study  or  for 
spring  observation. 

Object. — To  learn  the  different  operations  upon  the 
soil,  and  the  value  of  each. 

Material. — Note-book  and  pencil.  Fields  for  obser- 
vation. 


SUBJECT-MATTER    AND    METHOD 

Copy   the   following   table   in   the   note-book,   ani 
learn  to  write  it  approximately  from  memory : — 

Soil  Improvement  Methods. 


Operations. 
1.   Plowing. 


?.  Surface  tilling. 


Implements. 


Hoes,   rakes, 
cultivators, 
harrows,    and 
clod-crushers. 


Value   and    Improvement. 

Puts  land  in  fit  condition  for 
planting. 

Pulverizes  soil  so  that  plant 
food    is    available. 

Turns  under  manures,  green- 
crops,    and   trash. 

Deepens  soil,  and  increases  ca- 
pacity for  holding  water,  and 
for   root   extension. 

All'^ws  weather  to  act  on  the 
soil.      Aerates    the   soil. 

Makes    a    bed    for   seeds. 

Covers  the  seeds.  Pulverizes 
the    ground. 

Establishes  and  maintains  an 
earth    mulch.      Destroys   weeds. 


64 


ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    iN 


Operations. 


3.   Rolling. 


Rollers, 
{drags,  or 
[floats. 


4.  Cover-cropping. 


Implements.      '  Value  and  Improvement. 

Crushes      clods.        Smooths      the 

ground   for  seed. 
Hastens     germination     of     seeds 
by  firming  the  soil  and  bring- 
ing    moisture    to    the    surface 
through    capillarity. 
Compacts    the    soil   otherwise    too 
loose   and  open.   Puts   the  land 
in    a    condition    so    that    other 
tools  can  act  efficiently. 
Facilitates      marking      out      the 

land. 

Checks    growth    of     fruit    plants 

in  orchards. 
Prevents  land  from  washing  and 

puddling. 
Holds  rain  until  it  can  soak  into 

the  soil. 
Causes   soil    to   dry   out   early   In 
;  the   spring, 

[  Lessens  injury  from   frosts.   Adds 

available    nitrates    to    the    soil 

i  if_a  legume  crop. 

I^fapures,  Manures   supply  both  humus  and 

lime,    ashes,  plant   food. 

I  potash,  Jjime  ^niinteracts    the    acidity    of 

|nhosphate,  the  soil,  and  promotes 

'nitrate,    etc.  drainage. 

1  Commercial    fertilizers  add   avail- 

I  able   pl-ant  food  where    needed. 


Clover, 
alfalfa, 
cow-peas, 
vetch,   etc. 


5.   Fertilizing. 


Note. — The  best  tillage  of  the  soil  consists  of 
deep  plowing,  thorough  harrowing,  and  pulverizing  of 
the  clods,  and  shallow  cultivation.  This  renders  the 
plant  food  available,  and  provides  a  mulch  to  retain 
the  soil  moisture.  With  proper  tillage,  the  need  of  an 
artificial  fertilizer  is  lessened. 

A  visit  to  the  fields  to  see  these  operations,  and 
to  an  implement  store  for  first-hand  information,  is  ad- 
visable in  this  lesson. 

The  teacher  should  discuss  with  the  pupils  all  the 
values  and  improvements  suggested  in  the  table 
above. 

References  : — Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  245.  Id. — 
Pages  18-2T.     O.  &  M. — Pages  42-43. 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE  65 


LESSON  XXII 

Title. — Rotation  of  Crops. 

Season. — Any  season.    May  be  a  Winter  study. 
Object. — To  learn  methods  and  value  of  crop  rotation. 
Material. — Note-book    and    pencil.    Field    for    obser- 
vation. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 

It  may  not  be  feasible  for  the  school  to  work  out 
this  lesson  by  actual  experiment,  but  the  class  should 
make  an  excursion  to  fields  where  rotation  of  crops  is 
practiced,  and  there  understand  the  steps  in  the 
process. 

If  the  students  will  memorize  the  two  following 
methods  of  crop  rotation,  which  have  proven  success- 
ful, they  will  be  well  repaid  for  the  study  of  this 
lesson : — 

(a)  I.  Sow  clover  seed  in  the  wheat,  March  or 
April. 

2.  Harvest  the  wheat  as  usual,  and  allow  the 
clover  to  grow  all  Fall.  It  may  be  used  for  pasture  to 
some  extent. 

3.  Plow  up  the  clover  sod  in  the  following  April. 

4.  Plant  to  corn. 

5.  Sow  wheat  in  the  corn  in  the  Autumn  season. 

6.  Sow  clover  seed  in  the  wheat  again,  in  March 
or  April,  and  thus  continue  the  rotation  as  before. 


66 


ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


(1)).  If  llie  land  is  much  worn  out,  or  of  naturally 
poor  soil  the  rotation  begins  and  proceeds  as  in-  (a),  ex- 
cept that  at  No.  3,  instead  of  plowing  up  the  clover  for 
corn  in  the  spring,  allow  it  to  stand  another  season.  A 
hay  crop  may  tlien  be  harvested  in  July,  and  a  seed 
crop  again  in  the  Fall,  after  which  proceed  as  in  part 
(a). 

Make  a  note-book  tabulation  as  follows: — 
Rotation  of  Crops. 


Series  a. 

Series  b. 

Series  c. 

Series  d. 

Values   of    Rotation. 

Clover 
Clover         \  Hay    and 
Corn                 seed 
Wheat            Corn 
Clover            Wheat 

Clover 

Clover 

Corn 

Oats 

Wheat 

Clover 

Clover 

Corn 

Potato 

Wheat. 

Clover 

Preserves  food   supply. 
Increases    food   fupnly. 
Eradicates     v^'eeds, 

and     soil  diseases. 
Exterminates     in.oectP. 
"•nlarges    the    resources. 

Note. — There  are  two  theories  explaining  the 
need  of  rotation  of  crops.  One  states  that  the  plant 
returns  a  poison  to  the  soil,  rendering  it  unfit  for  the 
growth  of  that  species,  but  that  the  soil  is  not  ex- 
hausted of  plant  food.  The  other  holds  that  a  contin- 
uous growing  of  the  same  plant  robs  the  soil  of  the 
elements  necessary  for  the  growth  of  that  species,  but 
not  for  a  different  species. 

In  either  case,  rotation  of  crops  pays.  It  not  on!) 
makes  better  farms,  but  better  men.  The  fertility  of 
the  soil  is  maintained,  and  a  profitable  yield  is  forth- 
coming at  all  seasons.  A  wise  use  of  the  soil  does  not 
rob  it  of  its  fertility. 

References : — 

Id. — Pages  35  to  40. 

G.  &  M. — Pages  49-53. 


ELEMENTARY   AGRICULTURE 


67 


LESSON  XXIII 

Title.— Growing  Alfalfa. 

Season. — March  or  April. 

Object. — To  learn  how  to  grow  alfalfa  and  to  observe 
its  relation  to  soil  fertility. 

Material. — Four  square  rods  of  ground,  eight  quarts 
of  lime,  one  quart  of  oats  or  barley,  and  three- 
fourths  pound  of  alfalfa. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 

If  the  required  amount  of  land  cannot  be  obtained 
on  the  school  grounds,  a  farmer  living  near  the  school 
will  probably  be  glad  to  furnish  the  land.  Select  the 
site  in  any  plowed-up  ground,  lay  out  the  following 
plats,  each  one  rod  square : — 


1. 

fNOCCLXTIOV 

LTMK. 

2. 

IJMF. 

4. 

INOCn.ATION 

Drive  stakes  at  each  corner  of  each  plat, 


68  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 

Sow  about  eight  quarts  of  lime  on  plats  2  and  4, 
four  quarts  on  each  plat,  v  hich  is  equivalent  to  about 
twenty  bushels  on  an  acre.  Obtain  some  soil  from  a 
place  where  alfalfa  or  sweet  clover  is  growing,  and 
scatter  a  few  quarts  of  this  on  plats  3  and  4,  being 
careful  not  to  get  it  on  the  other  plats.  This  is  in- 
oculating the  soil  with  the  bacteria  of  the  alfalfa. 
Then  sow  a  light  seeding  of  oats  or  barley  over  all  the 
plats,  a  little  more  than  a  quart  is  suflficient.  Then 
sow  about  %  of  a  pound  of  alfalfa  over  the  four  plats 
and  rake  it  in.  Be  careful  not  to  rake  any  of  the  soil 
from  the  inoculated  plats  into  the  others. 

No  further  care  need  be  given  the  plats  until  the 
barley  or  oats  is  headed  out,  when  it  should  be  mowed 
off  above  the  tops  of  the  alfalfa  plants.  The  oats  or 
barley  should  not  be  allowed  to  mature  in  the  alfalfa. 
School  may  be  closed  before  this  experiment  is  fin- 
ished ;  but  the  teacher  should  appoint  a  committee  to 
study  and  report  the  observations  of  the  summer,  and 
all  living  near  should  be  encouraged  to  watch  the  ex- 
periment. This  is  getting  lessons  from  the  real  source 
and  not  from  books  alone. 

Draw  the  plats  in  the  agricultural  note-books,  and 
answer  the  following  questions: 

How  soon  does  the  barley  or  oats  come  up?  The 
alfalfa?  In  six  weeks  observe  the  roots  of  the  alfalfa 
in  each  plat.  In  which  plats  are  swollen  nodules 
found  on  the  alfalfa  roots?  What  is  the  effect  of  the 
lime  and  inoculation?  Observe  the  difference  in 
growth  in  the  four  plats. 

The  surest  way  to  get  alfalfa  to  grow  on  a  poor 
soil  is  to  manure  the  soil,  cultivate  it,  and  sow  about 


ELEMENTARY   AGRICULTURE 


69 


August  the  1st,  applying  lime  and  inoculation,  if  nec- 
essary. 

This  work  may  be  carried  on  at  the  students* 
home  if  there  are  no  plats  for  it  near  the  school.  The 
home  work  of  these  lessons  is  to  be  greatly  encour- 
aged. 


-rn^kL 


M^ 


ALFALFA 


70  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  XXIV 

Title.— Treating  Seed  Potatoes  to  Prevent  Scab. 

Season. — April  or  May. 

Object. — To   learn  how  to   rid   seed  potatoes   of  the 

scab. 
Material — Scabby  potatoes,  tub   or  barrel,  sack,  and 

one-third  pint  of  formalin    (formaldehyde). 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 

This  lesson  given  at  a  country  school,  at  potato- 
])lanting  time,  could  be  made  very  beneficial  both 
to  the  pupils  and  to  the  patrons  who  would  be  interested 
enough  to  co-operate. 

The  day  before  the  lesson  is  to  be  given,  the 
teacher  should  ask  some  pupils  to  bring  about  a  peck 
of  the  scabbiest  potatoes  that  can  be  found.  The 
teacher  should  see  that  the  other  materials  are  pro- 
vided for  the  lesson. 

Place  the  potatoes  in  a  burlap  sack.  Into  a  tub 
or  barrel  pour  five  gallons  of  water.  To  this  add  about 
one-sixth  of  a  pint  of  formalin.  This  can  be  purchased 
at  any  drug  store  at  40  cents  a  pint.  Place  the  sack 
of  potatoes  in  the  tub  of  formalin  solution.  Allow 
them  to  soak  one  and  one-half  hour. 

(Experimental  work  of  this  lesson  will  have  to 
end  here.  If  there  is  a  school  garden,  the  work  as 
outlined  below  should  be  continued  at  school ;  if  none, 


EtEMENTAftY    AGRICULTURE 


71 


THE    ROOTS    AND    TUBERS    OP    POTATO 
(Courtesy  of  B.   P.  Johnson  Pub.   Co.) 


A  GOOD  POTATO 


A  &OABBY  POTATO 


72  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 

the  teacher  should  fully  explain  the  rest,  and  call  for 
volunteer  pupils  to  complete  the  experiment  at  home 
and  report  upon  it.) 

Remove  the  potatoes  from  the  solution,  and  cut 
into  pieces  for  planting,  about  two  eyes  to  each  piece. 
Do  not  put  the  potatoes  back  into  a  receptacle  that 
has  had  in  it  scabby  potatoes.  The  vessel  to  be  used 
should  be  washed  with  the  solution  in  the  tub. 

Plant  the  treated  tubers  in  rows  by  themselves, 
where  scabby  potatoes  have  never  grown,  and  mark 
with  stakes  the  rows  so  planted.  To  show  the  com- 
parative results  of  the  treatment,  plant  the  same  number 
of  scabby  potatoes,  and  give  both  equal  care  and  cultiva- 
tion throughout  the  season. 

When  the  potatoes  are  ripe,  dig  the  treated  and 
untreated  separately.  Count  the  increase  in  the  treat- 
ed potatoes.  A  careful  record  of  this  lesson  should 
be  kept,  including  the  cost  of  treatment,  the  price  of 
]K)tat()es,  and  the  total  gain  from  the  treatment,  based 
on   the   increased   value  of  the  yield. 

It  would  be  a  good  service  to  the  district  if  pu- 
pils would  bring  all  their  scabby  potatoes  to  the 
school  to  be  treated,  before  planting.  Any  helpful 
co-operation  between  the  school  and  the  home  is  of 
incalculable  value  to  both  institutions. 

References : — 

Id. — Page   109- 1 13. 


ELEMENTASY  AGRICULTURE  73 


'  LESSON  XXV 

Title. — Biological  Maps  of  Home  Farms. 

Season. — Any. 

Object. — To  teach  the  pupils  how  to  map   the  farm 

and  to  make  a  study  of  biological  and  physical 

conditions  there. 
Material. — Pencil  and  note-book. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND    METHOD 

Assign  to  groups  of  two  or  three  pupils  who  live 
near  each  other,  plots  of  ten  or  twenty  acres  on  their 
home  farm,  and  require  the  following  outside  work 
of  each  group : 

1.  Make  measurements  of  the  tract  of  land  al- 
lotted and  draw  a  map  of  the  same  to  an  accurate 
^cale.  Place  on  this  map  the  creeks,  springs,  buildings, 
etc. 

2.  Collect  in  bottles  samples  of  the  different  kinds 
of  hcil  found  on  the  tract,  and  bring  to  school. 

3.  Make  a  list  o'f  all  the  useful  plants  growing 
on  the  plot. 

4.  Make  a  lis':  of  all  the  weeds  or  useless  plants 
known  on  the  plot. 

5.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  domestic  and  wild  ani- 
mals seen. 

6.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  birds  and  insects  ob- 
served from  time  to  time. 


74 


ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


This  work  may  continue  through  many  weeks, 
and  the  pupils  should  keep  a  neat  and  accurate 
record  in  their  permanent  note-books  of  the  obser- 
vations on  their  tracts  of  land. 


ELEMENTARY    AGRICULTURE  75 


LESSON  XXVI 

Title. — Spraying  for  Codling  Moth  and  Fungous  Dis- 
eases. 

Season. — When  the  apple  blossoms  fall,  and  two  weeks 
later. 

Object. — To  learn  how  to  spray  apple  trees. 

Material. — Spray  pump,  3  lbs.  copper  sulphate  (blue 
stone),  6  lbs.  of  unslacked  lime,  i^  lbs.  lead  arse- 
nate (disparene),  and  50  gallons  of  water. 

SUBJECT-MATTER    AND    METHOD 

This  lesson  may  seem  impracticable  for  school 
work,  but  it  is  so  important  that  the  teacher  shoul  i 
make  every  effort  to  have  a  demonstration  made  at 
the  school,  before  the  class.  If  any  farmer  in  the  dis- 
trict has  a  spray  pump,  he  no  doubt  would  be  willing 
to  loan  it  for  this  lesson.  The  spray  mixture  can  be 
bought  for  about  75  cents.  If  a  five-gallon  knapsack 
spray-pump  can  be  borrowed,  the  proportions  of  the 
mixture  given  below  can  be  reduced  to  one-tenth  of 
the  material.  A  bucket  spray  pump  could  be  pur- 
chased at  very  little  cost,  and  would  be  well  worth 
the  price  to  the  school  for  experimental  purposes,  and 
encourage  the  practice  of  this  very  important  work. 
Two  good  machines  of  larger  and  more  expensive 
make  are  the  Pomona  and  the  Fruit-all.  Allow  the 
"blue-stone"  to  dissolve  over  night,  hanging  in  a  c'oth 


76 


ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


THE   CODLING   MOTH 

(Courtesy   of   B.    F.    John? on   Pub.   Co.) 


FRUIT    FROM   SPRAYED   AND   UNSPRAYED   BRANCHES 
(Courtesy  of  B.   F.   Johnson  Pub.   Co.) 


fiLEMEiNTARY    AGRICULTURE  11 

sack  in  three  ,2^allons  of  water,  or  place  iti  boiling;  water 
when  it  will  dissolve  in  a  few  minutes.  Use  wooden 
vessels  for  the  copper  S(^lution.  Dihite  to  25  gallons. 
Dissolve  the  lime  in  five  or  six  gallons  of  water,  and 
dilute  to  25  gallons.  After  the  two  have  dissolved,  in 
their  separate  vessels,  pour  the  two  solutions  slowly  to- 
gether into  a  barrel.  .Now  dissolve  the  one-and-one- 
half  pounds  of  lead  arsenate,  and  slowly  and  thorcuighly 
stir  the  solution  into  the  barrel  w^ith  the  rest.  The 
mixture  is  now  ready  for  the  spray  pump.      (Bordeaux). 

Force  the  spray  thoroughly  onto  every  leaf,  stem, 
and  fruit  of  the  apple  tree. 

If  this  operation  is  repeated  in  about  tv^o  weeks 
after  the  blossoms  fall,  and  then  in  mid-summer  to  com- 
bat the  second  brood,  the  trees  and  fruit  wi'l  be 
saved  from  codling  moths  and  fungous  diseases,  and 
the  apple  trees  may  yield  a  hundred-fold.  This  has 
been  proven  most  forcibly  in  the  orchards  of  Mr.  G. 
C.  Starcher,  of  Berlin,  Lewis,  Co.,  West  Virginia.  Old 
and  formerly  barren  trees,  have  yielded  hundreds  of 
dollars'  worth  of  fine  apples  in  a  few  years,  and  his 
fruit  has  taken  first  and  second  prizes  at  National  and 
state  exhibits.  This  same  spray  mixture  can  be  used 
at  any  season  upon  any  leaf-chewing  insects  that  are 
defoliating  the  plants.  Applications  to  the  State  Ex- 
periment Station  should  be  made  for  the  latest  spray- 
calendars.  H.  S.  Vandewort,  Morgantown,  W.  Va., 
will    furnish   prepared   mixtures   ready   for  solution. 

References: — Farmers'   Bulletin     No.   243. 

Id. — Pages  128-130. 

G.  '&  M.— Pages  138-140. 


78  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  XXVII 

Title.—Budding. 

Season. — Early  Autumn  or  early  Spring. 

Object. — To   learn   how   to   propagate   fruit   trees   by 

budding. 
Material. — Sharp  knife,  raffia  or  string,  and  fruit  trees. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND    METHOD 

Budding  is  such  a  simple  and  important  farm 
operation  that  every  boy  and  girl  should  know  how 
to  do  it.  Think  of  changing  the  little  apple-trees  in 
the  orchard  to  almost  any  variety  of  apples  you  wish ! 
This  is  exactly  what  budding  is  for.  This  change  can 
be  made  en  braiichcs  as  small  as  lead  pencils,  or  as 
large  as  the  thumb.  The  nurseryman  buds  the  little 
trees  a  few  inches  above  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
The  fruit  grower  top  buds  the  little  trees,  two  or 
three  feet  above  the  ground. 

The  class  may  go  to  a  young  orchard  near  the 
school  for  this  lesson,  or  several  branches  of  young 
trees  may  be  brought  into  the  school-room. 

I.  Choose  the  place  for  the  bud.  Make  a  hori- 
zontal cut  across  the  stem,  just  through  the  bark. 
Then  beginning  in  the  middle  of  the  horizontal  cui, 
draw  the  knife  straight  down  making  a  vertical  cut. 
(See  figure  b).  Twist  the  knife  sidewise  before  draw- 
ing it  out,  in  order  to  loosen  the  bark.  The  stock  is 
now  ready  for  the  bud. 


ELEMENTABY   AGEICULTURE 


BUDDING 
(Courtesy  of  Cornell  Rural  School  Leaflets.) 


2.  Take  the  buds  from  bearing  trees  of  the  vari- 
ety you  wish.  Cut  twigs  that  have  grown  this  year. 
The  .leaves  are  still  on  them.  At  the  base  of  each 
leaf,  and  between  the  leaf  and  the  branch,  you  will 
find  a  little  bud.  This  is  the  bud  to  insert  into  the 
tnee  which  has  been  prepared  as  above  described. 

3.  Cut  the  leaf  off  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
above  the  bud,  thus  leaving  the  leaf  stock  as  a  handle 
for  the  bud.  The  end  buds  should  not  be  used.  Be- 
ginning with  a  sharp  knife  below  the  bud,  cut  up- 
wards just  through  the  bark,  beneath  the  1)ud  and 
above  it  about  half  an  inch.  Be  sure  to  cut  through 
the  bark,  but  not  into  the  wood.     (See  figure  a). 

4.  Push  the  bud  down  into  the  cut  made  into 
the  stock,  using  the  leaf  stalk  as  a  handle.  Be  sure 
that  the  entire  bud  is  shoved  into  the  incision.     If  a 


80  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 

piece   cf   bark   should   project   above,   cut   it   o{f.     (See 
figure  c). 

5.  The  bud  is  now  ready  for  tying.  Raffia  is  the 
best  material  to  use,  but  ordinary  string  may  be  used. 
Begin  below  the  bud  and  wrap  the  wound  entirely, 
except  where  the  bud  is.  Wrap  it  snugly  and  tightly, 
and  then  tie  securely.     (See  figure  d) 

6.  In  two  or  three  weeks  the  bud  will  have 
"stuck",  and  the  string  may  then  be  removed.  The 
bud  will  remain  dormant  during  the  winter  and  begin  to 
grow  the  next  spring. 

References: — Farmers'  Bulletin    No.  157  and  218. 
Id.— Pages  86-88. 

And  when,  above  this  apple-tree. 
The  winter  stars  are  quivering  bright 
And  winds  go  howling  through  the  night, 
Girls,   whose  young  eyes  o'crflow   with  mirth. 
Shall  peel  its   fruit  by  cottage-hearth. 

And  guests  in  prouder  homes  shall  see, 
Heaped  with  the  grape  of  Cintra's  vine 
And  golden  orange  of  the  line, 

The  fruit  of  the  apple-tree. 

— Bryant. 


ELEMENTAEY   AGRICULTURE  81 


LESSON   XXVIII 


Title.— Grafting. 

Season. — Spring  or  Autumn.  A  good  Winter  lesson. 
Object. — To  learn  how  to  propagate  fruit  by  grafting. 
Material. — Sharp  knife,    grafting    wax,    strings,    and 
fruit  trees. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

By  a  process  known  as  grafting,  one  can  force  trees 
to  produce  different  varieties  of  fruit.  There  are  two 
common  methods  of  grafting, — the  tongue  or  whip  graft 
and  the  cleft  graft. 
I.     The  tongue  graft. 

If  the  class  can  not  plan  to  go  to  an  orchard  for 
this  lesson,  bring  several  branches  of  apple  trees  into 
the  school  room.  Choose  a  stock  upon  which  you  in- 
tend to  graft  the  desired  variety.  Then  select  from 
the  variety  desired,  a  twig  that  is  about  the  thickness 
of  the  young  tree  at  the  point  where  you  wish  to 
graft.  Be  careful  to  select  the  shoot  or  scion  from  a 
healthy  part  of  the  tree.  Cut  the  scion  and  stock  as  yoit 
would  the  mouth  parts  of  a  boy's  whistle  then  make  a 
vertical  slit  across  the  cut  surface.  Join  the  cut  end 
of  the  scion  to  the  cut  end  of  the  stock  and  wrap  with 
raffia  or  waxed  cord.  When  you  join  them,  notice  that 
under  the  bark  of  each  is  a  thin  layer  of  soft,  juicy 
tissue.  This  is  called  the  cambium.  To  make  a  suc- 
cessful graft,  the  cambium  in  the  scion  must  exactly 
join  the  cambium  in  the  stock. 


82 


ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


CLEFT   GRAFTING 
A — Prepared   scion  ;   B — Scions   in   place  ;   C — Graft  waxed   over. 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE  83 

After  fitting  the  parts  closely  together,  bind  them 
with  string  that  has  been  coated  with  grafting  wax. 
This  wax  is  made  of  equal  parts  of  tallow,  beeswax, 
and  linseed  oil.  Smear  the  wax  over  the  whole  joint, 
and  make  sure  that  it  is  air-tight.  February  or  March 
is  perhaps  the  best  time  to  do  this  work. 
2.     The  cleft  graft. 

For  the  grafting  of  larger  scions  or  for  the  graft- 
ing of  scions  of  various  kinds  of  apple-trees  upon  the 
branches  of  one  stock,  the  cleft-graft  method  is  used. 
The  stock  is  cut  squarely  across,  and  the  scions,  either 
one  or  two,  are  cut  into  wedges  at  the  end,  and  slipped 
into  a  cleft  of  the  stock.  The  cambium  of  the  scions 
must  come  in  contact  with  the  cambium  of  the  stock, 
as  in  the  former  method.  After  the  scions  are  forced 
into  the  cleft  of  the  stock,  the  whole  exposed  surface, 
and  the  cleft  left  open,  should  be  covered  with  the 
grafting  wax.       (See  figure.) 

Trees  may  successfully  be  budded  or  grafted 
only  when  they  are  nearly  related.  There  are  some 
rare  exceptions  to  this  rule. 

Have  pupils  write  a  description  of  these  methods 
and  make  drawings  of  the  grafts.  Each  pupil  in  the 
class  should  make  these  grafts  for  himself,  and  if  pos- 
sible, the  work  should  be  done  in  the  orchard. 

References : — 

Id.— Pages  83-86. 

G.  &  M.— Pages  84-87. 


84  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  XXIX 

Title. — Spraying  for  San  Jose  Scale  and  other  Suck- 
ing Insects. 

Season. — During  the  dormant  season  of  plants. 

Object. — To  learn  how  to  spray  for  San  Jose  scale 
and  other  sucking  insects. 

Material. — Spray  pump,  ^^  pound  of  hard  soap,  2  gal- 
lons of  kerosene,  water,  and  the  fruit-tree  with  the 
scale,  15  pounds  lime  and  15  pounds  sulphur. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

With  this  lesson,  as  with  a  preceding  one,  it 
may  not  be  possible  in  the  rural  school  to  demonstrate 
the  actual  work  of  spraying,  but  the  teacher  should 
make  every  effort  to  have  the  school  officials  purchase 
a  spray-pump  in  order  to  demonstrate  these  important 
lessons. 

The  San  Jose  scale  is  one  of  the  most  dreaded  en- 
emies of  the  fruit-tree.  It  is  an  illegal  act  to  sell  fruit- 
trees  infested  with  it.  This  insect  is  very  minute,  yet 
it  spreads  rapidly  and  soon  covers  the  branches  of  the 
trees  with  a  grayish  scale,  beneath  which  is  the  living 
pest,  sucking  the  life  from  the  tree.  Probably  the 
best  thing  to  do  when  one  finds  that  the  scale  has 
found  his  fruit-trees,  is  promptly  to  burn  the  tree 
affected.  By  vigorous  spraying  with  kerosene  emul- 
sion of  15%  strength,  soon  after  the  eggs  are  hatched 
in  the  summer  one  may  keep  them  in  check. 


ELEMENTABY  AGBICULTUEE  85 

If  possible  the  teacher  may  have  the  class  help  mix 
up'  the  emulsion,  either  on  a  large  scale  as  given  in  the 
appendix,  or  in  small  quantities  with  the  same  propor- 
tions. 

The  best  insecticide  for  scale  in  the  dormant  sea- 
son of  the  plant,  is  the  lime-sulphur  wash,  or  a  mis- 
cible  oil. 

Lime- Sulphur  Wash. 

Lime 15  pounds 

Sulphur 15  pounds 

Water 15  gallons 

Boil,  then  dilute  with  50  gallons  of  water. 
For  a  school-room  demonstration,  the  following 
proportions  may  be  made  up  for  kerosene  emulsions 

Soap    I  oz. 

Water    I  pt. 

Kerosene    2  pt. 

This  proportion,  diluted  with  two  gallons  of  wa- 
ter, will  make  a  spray  which  may  be  used  on  house 
or  garden  plants  to  rid  them  of  plant  lice,  or  other 
sucking  insects. 

References : — Farmers'   Bulletin,   No.  227. 

Id. — Pages    127-128. 


SAN  JOSB  SCALE 


86  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  XXX 

Title. — Collections  of  the  Products  of  the  Neighbor- 
hood. 

S  eason. — Autumn. 

Object. — To  learn  and  to  classify  the  products  of  the 
neighborhood. 

Material. — All  the  material  collected,  bottles,  strings, 
and  labels. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 

Try  to  get  small  bundles  of  each  of  the  grains 
raised  in  the  community,  such  as, — wheat,  oats,  rye,  corn, 
cowpeas,  clover,  and  any  other  crop  raised  for  its  seed. 
Have  each  of  the  pupils  bring  a  few  culms  of  these  and 
a  collection  will  soon  be  made.  Each  bundle  should 
be  labeled  as  follows : 

Name  of  plant.  Date  of  collection.  Name  of 
collector.  The  collection  should  be  accompanied  by 
samples  of  the  mature  seed,  put  up  in  bottles  of  uni- 
form size,  and  labeled  as  above. 

All  the  grasses  and  clovers  used  as  hay  may  be 
collected  in  the  same  way.  Arrange  the  exhibit  on 
the  wall  or  in  a  frame  in  as  artistic  a  manner  as  pos- 
sible. 

A  day  can  be  set  apart  when  the  fruits  and  veg- 
etables, as  well  as  other  farm  products  of  the  neighbor- 
hood, can  be  exhibited.    Awards  and  prizes  might  be 


ELEMENTARY   AGEICULTUEE 


87 


offered,  thus  making  the  school  a  new  center  of  in- 
terest in  the  community. 

As  much  of  the  collection  as  can  be  made  perma- 
nent, should  be  made  so  and  kept  at  the  school  dur- 
ing the  term. 

The  collection  and  arrangement  of  this  material 
will  furnish  a  valuable  lesson,  and  give  opportunity  to 
develo])  skillful  exhibitors. 


-^ 

^^^^wVj^H 

■      ■               ^1 

1 

FORESTRY  SCP^NE 


88  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  XXXI 

Title. — Habits  of  the  Common  Weeds. 

Season. — Autumn. 

Object. — To  study  the  habits  and  methods  of  treating 

some  common  weeds. 
Material. — A  collection  of  weeds. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 

Weeds  are  everywhere,  and  their  disadvantages 
are  well  known.  Select  some  of  the  most  troublesome 
weeds  in  your  community,  and  make  the  following 
study,  filling  out  the  table  below : 

Name  of  the  Weed. 

1.  Kinds  of  soil  in  which  it  thrives  best. 

2.  Calculate  number  of  seeds, 

3.  How  are  the  seeds  scattered? 

4.  When  ripe? 

5.  At  what  time  in  the  growing  season  do  they 
germinate? 

6.  Does  the  young  plant  grow  rapidly  or  slowly? 

7.  What  kind  of  roots  does  the  plant  have? 

8.  When   von   cut   it    off   docs   a   new   plant   come 
from  the  same  place? 

9.  Does  plowing  through  a  patch  of  weeds  in- 
crease their  number? 


ELEMENTARY   AGRICULTURE 


89 


OF 


do  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 

-     •       I 

lo.     Does  the  weed  have  any  natural  check,  such 
as  birds,  insects  or  live  stock  eating  the  fo- 
liage? 
I  i.     Weeds  can   be  killed  cither  by  preventing  the 
formation     of    seeds,    or    by    preventing    the 
growth     of     the     foliage.     Which     of     these 
methods  is  l)etter  suited  to  the  weed  in  hand? 
12.     What  garden  or  field  crop  does  this  weed  in- 
jure?    How  does  it  injure? 
Answer   these   points   for   a   half-dozen    different 
kinds    of    weeds,    and    preserve    your   specimens    in    the 
school  for  reference.       Learn  the  names  of  12  or  15 
common  weeds. 

Write  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture  at  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.  for  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  28,  on  Weeds 
and  How  to  Destroy  Them,  and  for  a  reprint  from 
the  Year  Book  of  1898,  entitled.  Birds  as  Weed  De- 
stroyers. 

Reference : — 

Id. — Pages  73-76.  • 

G.  &  M. — Pages  109-129. 

Note. — Some  weeds  are  difficult  to  eradicate  because  they  have 
large  flephy  rootp.  that  fend  up  new  sprouts  as  For^n  as  the  ♦op  is  cut 
off.  others  are  fully  as  tr-^ubV-^ome  becau'^e  th*^y  have  underground 
stems  that  run  along  just  beneath  *he  surface.  Still  other  weeds  per- 
sist because  they  can  ripen  an  immense  amount  of  seeds.  The  way 
to  kill  the  weeds  of  the  first  and  second  class  is  to  cultivate  so  thor- 
oughly as  ♦o  kill  the  sprouts  as  they  appear.  If  this  is  done  thor- 
oughly for  about  three  months,  all  the  substance  in  the  underground 
storehouses  will  be  used  up  and  the  weed  must  die.  The  way  to  de- 
stroy weeds  of  the  third  class  is  to  prevent  them  from  seeding.  Deter- 
mine to  which  class  your  t roublesome  ("weeds  belong. 


ELEMENTAEY  AGEICULTURE  91 


LESSON  XXXII 

Title.— The  Flower. 
Season. — Autumn  or  Spring. 

Object. — To  study  the  flower  and  its  life  relation. 
Material. — Any   simple,    complete    flower,    hand    lens, 
note  book,  and  pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND    METHOD 

However  much  the  flowers  serve  to  beautify 
the  world  and  increase  man's  enjoyment,  that  is  not 
their  chief  use. 

The  fruit  of  the  plant  bears  the  seed,  and  the 
flower  produces  the  fruit.  That  is  the  chief  duty  of 
the  flower.  Every  plant  that  produces  seed  has  flow- 
ers. 

Let  us  see  what  a  flower  is.  Take  for  example 
a  buttercup,,  cherry  blossom,  or  the  violet.  You  will 
find  on  the  outside  a  row  of  green  leaves  enclosing 
the  flower  when  it  is  still  a  bud.  These  leaves  arc 
called  sepals.  Next  on  the  inside  is  a  row  of  colored 
leaves,  or  petals.  Arranged  inside  of  the  petals  arc 
some  threadlike  parts,  each  with  a  knob  on  the  end. 
These  are  the  stamens.  Examine  one  stamen  close- 
ly. On  the  tip  at  its  knob  you  should  find,  if  the  flower 
is  fully  opened,  some  fine  grains  of  powder.  This 
substance  is  called  pollen,  and  the  knob  on  the  end  in 
which  the  pollen  is  borne  is  called  the  anther.     The 


92 


ONE    HUNDBED    LESSONS    IN 


-  -StipmOr 


-Corolla 


VERTICAL    SECTION    OP    A    TOMATO    BLOSSOM 
(From  Burkett  et  al.,  Glnn  &  Co.) 


Anther- 


FLlCJnentr 


Ovary— 


A    STAMEN 


A    PISTIL 


ELEMENTAEY  AGEICULTUEE 


93 


pollen  is  very  important  to  the  flower.  Without  it 
there  could  be  no  seed.  But  there  is  another  part  to 
each  flower  that  is  of  equal  value.  This  part  you  will 
find  in  the  center  of  the  flower,  inside  the  circle  of 
stamens.  It  is  called  the  pistil.  The  tip  of  the  pistil 
is  the  stigma.  The  base  of  the  pistil  forms  the  ovary. 
If  you  carefully  cut  open  this  ovary,  you  will  find  in 
it  very  small  unripe  seed. 

In  the  corn  flower  and  many  others,  the  stamens 
and  pistils  are  separate  on  the  same  plant.  In  some 
plants  these  parts  occur  on  separate  individuals. 

Now  no  plant  can  bear  seeds  unless  the 
pollen  of  the  stamen  falls  upon  the  stigma.  The  wind 
and  the  insects  help  to  carry  the  pollen  to  the  stigma. 

Fill  out  the  following  table  for  this  lesson  on 
flowers : 


Name   of     }  No.    of 
Flower,    i     Sepals. 


No.    of 
Petals    and 
Color. 


No.  of 

Stamens. 


No.   of  Pistils. 
Seeds  many  or  few. 


Make  a  drawing  of  each  of  the  parts  of  the  flower 
and  of  the  whole  flower. 
References: — 
Id. — Pages  44-48. 
G.  &  M. — Pages  96-104. 


94  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON   XXXIII 

Title.— The  Wheat  Crop. 

Season. — Autumn  or  Spring. 

Object. — To  learn  the  nature  and  requirements  of  the 

wheat  crop. 
Material. — A  wheat  field  for  the  class  to  observe  some 

wheat   culms,   grains,   and  growing  plant  in  the 

school-room. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 

Plan  to  take  the  class  to  a  wheat  field  in  late 
spring  or  early  autumn.  Let  the  following  points 
be  brought  out  by  way  of  introduction: 

Wheat  has  been  cultivated'  from  the  earliest 
times.  This  crop  ranks  third  in  value  in  the  United 
States.  It  grows  in  cool,  temperate,  and  warm  cli- 
mates, and  in  many  kinds  of  soil.  It  does  best  in  clay 
loam,  and  poorest  in  sandy  soils.  Examine  the  soil 
of  the  crop  before  the  class,  if  you  are  in  the  field. 
The  soil  must  be  well  drained,  and  in  a  good  physical 
condition, — that  is  it  must  be  open,  crumbly,  and  mel- 
low. Hard  clay  soils  can  be  made  valuable  for  wheat 
by  working  in  manure,  by  good  tillage,  and  by  crop 
rotation.  Cowpeas  or  red  clover  make  a  valuable  crop 
to  precede  wheat ;  for  they  add  nitrogen  to  the  soil, 
loosen  the  soil  and  allow  free  circulation  of  air,  and  add 
humus  to  the  soil,  when  plowed  under  or  decayed. 


ELEMENTARY  AGBICULTURE  95 

Pull  up  a  single  wheat  plant  and  see  the  extent 
')f  the  root  system.  From  one  to  two  inches  is  the 
most  satisfactory  depth  for  planting  wheat.  A  mel- 
low soil,  with  a  compact  sul)soil,  is  the  most  desirable 
for  wheat  culture. 

There  are  a  great  many  varieties  of  wheat;  some 
are  bearded  some  are  smooth ;  some  are  winter  vari- 
eties and  some  are  spring  varieties.  All  may  be  im- 
proved by  careful  seed  selection. 

The  seed  drill  is  the  best  implement  for  planting 
wheat. 

A  study  of  the  crop  will  show  what  sort  of  fer- 
tilizer is  needed.  If  the  straw  be  inferior  and  short,  the 
soil  is  probably  deficient  in  nitrogen  :  but  if  the  straw  be 
luxuriant  and  the  heads  small  and  poorly  filled,  the 
soil  may  contain  too  little  phosphoric  acid  and  potash. 

A  few  wheat  kernels  should  be  planted  in  pots  in 
the  school-room  in  time  before  this  lesson,  so  that 
the  growing  plants  may  be  observed. 

Make  a  drawing  of  a  wheat  stem  and  its  entire 
root  system. 

References : — 

Id. — Pages  163-168. 


96  0N£    HUNDBED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  XXXIV 

Title.— The  Com  Crop. 

Season.— Autumn  or  Spring. 

Object. — To  study  the  nature  and  requirements  ^of  the 
corn  crop. 

Material. — A  field  of  com  for  observation,  or  the  glow- 
ing plants  in  the  school-room. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

In  former  lessons  the  selecting  and  testing  of  seed 
corn  has  been  studied  and  in  this  lesson  the  cultural 
requirements  are  to  be  noted.  Take  the  class  to  a 
field  of  corn,  either  in  the  late  spring  or  early  autumn, 
and  there  discuss  with  the  pupils  the  following  points: 

Corn  is  king  of  the  cereals,  and  the  most  impor- 
tant crop  of  American  agriculture.  It  is  the  backbone 
of  farming  in  this  country.  The  white  man  learned 
the  value  of  this  cereal  from  the  Indians,  and  since 
then  its  culture  has  kept  pace  with  the  wonderful 
growth  of  our  country. 

A  rich  humous  soil,  loose,  warm,  and  moist,  will 
produce  a  better  crop  of  corn  than  any  other.  The 
proper  time  to  begin  the  cultivation  of  corn  is  before 
it  is  planted.  Plow  deeply.  Harrow  the  surface  mel- 
low and  fine.  Plant  with  the  horse  planter,  either  in 
hills  or  in  drilled  rows.  A  few  days  after  planting, 
the  cornfield  should  be  harrowed  with  a  fine-toothed 
harrow  to  loosen  the  surface  soil,  and  to  kill  the  grass 


ELEMENTARY    AGRICULTURE  97 

and  weed  seeds  that  are  germinating.  When  the 
corn  plants  are  from  a  half  inch  to  an  inch  hii^h,  the 
roller  and  narrow  shoveled  cultivator  should  be  used. 
Corn  is  a  crop  that  needs  constant  cultivation, 
and  during  the  growing  season  should  be  cultivated  at 
least  four  times.     This  cultivation  is  for  three  reasons : 

1.  To  destroy  weeds  that  take  plant  fo;  d  and 
water. 

2.  To  provide  a  soil  mulch  to  prevent  evapora- 
tion. 

3.  Because  tillage  is  a  fertilizer.  Constant  stir- 
ring of  the  soil  allows  the  air  to  circulate,  and  provides 
available  plant  food. 

Deep  culture  of  corn  is  not  advisable,  after  the  roo^s 
begin  to  spread. 

While  in  the  field,  have  the  pupils  examine  the 
soil,  the  depth  of  cultivation,  the  corn  roots,  and  the 
thriftiness  of  the  crop. 

The  stalks  ought  always  to  be  saved,  for  they 
make  valuable  food  for  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep. 

Have  pupils  write  a  paragraph  on  corn  culture 
after  the  discussion  of  this  lesson.  Ask  them  to  con- 
sult the  farmers  for  additlonail  points. 

Report  as  follows: 

When   plowed? 

How  deep? 

How  prepared  for  planting? 

How  much  seed  used? 

What  kind  of  a  seeder? 

How  harvested?     When? 

References : — Farmers'   Bulletin,   No.   199. 
Id. — Pages  168-173. 


98  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  XXXV 

Title. — I'he  Roots  of  Corn  and  Clover. 

Season.—  -Whenever  available. 

Object. — To  learn  the  nature  and  habit  of  the  roots  of 

corn  and  clover. 
Material. — Earthen  pots  with  the   growing  corn  and 

clover  plants. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND    METHOD 

By  growing  the  corn  and  clover  in  pots,  the  early 
stages  of  the  root  may  be  studied,  and  by  going  to 
the  field  in  September,  the  matured  rOOfs  may  be  seen. 

Carefully  wash  the  soil  from  the  young  roots, 
and  spread  them  out  upon  a  sheet  of  paper.  Get  a 
root  from  the  mature  plants  and  have  it  before  yoii 
for  comparison. 

Note  the  following  points  of  the  corn  root,  and 
tabulate  the  answer  below : 

1.  Length  and  number  of  principal  roots. 

2.  Amount  of  branching  from  any  one  root. 

3.  Direction  in  which  the  roots,  extend  from  the 
base  of  the  plant. 

4.  Amount  of  space  used  as  feeding  ground. 

5.  How  near  the  surface  do  the  roots  lie? 

6.  Difference  between  spur  roots  and  the  others. 
Reasons. 


KLEMENTABY  AGEICULTUEE 


99 


7.  Can  you  find  root-cap  and  root-hairs? 

8.  Does  your  observation  lead  you  to  any  con- 
clusions about  the  cultivation  of  corn?    Explain. 

Make  a  similar  study  and  tabulation  for  the  clo- 
ver roots  upon  these  points : 

1.  Do  you  find  any  nodules  on  the  clover  root? 

2.  Of  what  use  are  these  nodules  said  to  be? 

3.  Were  there  any  nodules  on  the  corn  roots? 

4.  Which  of  these  plants  has  a  tap-root? 

5.  From   this   lesson   can  you   see     why      crops 
should  be  grown  in  rotation? 

Make  a  drawing  in  the  note-book  of  the  corn  and 
clover   root  system. 

(Adapted  from   Fisher,   Purdue  University.) 

•References : — 
Id.— Pages  33-35. 
G.  &  M.— Pages  45-48. 


GBOWTH  OP  CORN  BOOTS. 


100  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  XXXVI 

Title.— Suckers  on  Corn  and  the   Stooling  Habit  oi 

Wheat. 
Season. — At  any  time. 
Object. — To  study  the  stooling  habit  of  wheat,  and 

the  growth  of  suckers  on  corn. 
Material. — Box  of  soil  in  which  are  growing  the  wheat 

and  com  plants. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

If  it  is  not  possible  to  make  this  study  in  the 
fields,  the  corn  and  wheat  may  be  grown  in  rich  soil 
in  doors. 

With  a  stiflF  knife  or  trowel,  raise  a  wheat  plant 
from  the  soil  without  breaking  oflF  many  of  the  roots. 
Try  to  find  the  grain  from  which  the  plant  started. 
Find  the  first  joint  above  this  grain. 

Do  you  find  more  than  one  plant  starting  from 
this  joint? 

All  but  the  central  one  of  these  are  stools. 

Do  the  stools  seem  to  be  as  strong  as  the  central 
plant? 

Does  the  thickness  of  the  stand  seem  to  have 
anything  to  do  with  the  amount  of  stooling? 

Is  the  stooling  greater  in  rich  soil  or  in  poor  soil  ? 

Is  a  large  amount  of  stooling  desirable?     Why? 


ELEMENTABY   AGBICULTUBE  101 

What  are  your  conclusions  as  to  the  quantity  of 
seed  to  be  sown? 

Are  the  suckers  on  the  corn  examples  of  stooling? 

Are  the  suckers  beneficial  or  harmful  to  the  corn 
plant?    Why? 

Write  answers  to  these  questions  in  the  perma- 
nent note-book.  Make  drawings  to  show  the  stool- 
ing habit. 


102  ONE    HUNDBED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON   XXXVII 

Title. — Plant  Propagation  from  Cuttings. 

Season. — Any  season  when  plants  are  available. 

Object. — To  learn  plant  propagation  by  means  of  the 
"cutting"  method. 

Material. — A  window  box  of  rich  soil  in  the  school- 
room, and  cuttings  from  begonias,  wax  plants, 
coleuses,  geraniums,  verbenas,  etc. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND    METHOD 

The  teacher  or  the  pupils  may  bring  soft  cuttings 
from  the  stem  or  leaf  of  house-plants  at  home,  if  none 
are  available  at  the  school.  The  window  box,  which 
should  be  a  permanent  fixture  in  all  the  course  in  ele- 
mentary agriculture,  should  be  supplied  for  this  les- 
son with  moist  sand,  and  kept  in  a  warm  place. 

The  leaves  of  the  Rex  begonia  and  wax  plant  may 
be  propagated  by  inserting  the  edge  of  the  leaf  or 
even  a  piece  of  the  leaf  in  sand  and  supplying  it  with 
plenty  of  moisture  and  warmth.  A  leaf  may  be  laid 
flat,  right  side  up,  on  the  surface  of  the  sand  and  fas- 
tened down  at  intervals  by  splinters  through  the  veins. 
Plants  will  spring  up  at  the  bottom  edges  of  the  leaf  or 
at  cut  places  in  the  veins. 

Stem  cuttings  are  easily  made  from  the  coleus, 
geranium,  verbena,  tomato,  and  numerous  other  herb- 
aceous plants.    Take  thrifty  shoots  from  any  of  these 


ELEMENTARY   AGRICULTURE 


103 


STEM    CUTTING,    OR    SLIP,    OF    COLEUS 


LEAF   CUTTING. — WHOLE   LEAF 


104 


ONE    HUNDBED    LESSONS    IN 


plants,  and  divide  them  into  cuttings  having  at  least 
two  nodes  and  several  leaves.  Take  off  about  half  of 
the  leaves,  insert  the  cutting  in  moist  sand  about  half 
of  its  length,  and  press  the  sand  firmly  about  it. 

Keep  the  sand  warm  and  moist  and  watch  the  de- 
velopment from  day  to  day. 

Poplar  and  willow  trees  will  propagate  easily  from 
cuttings. 

Make  drawings  of  the  propagations  after  tlu^ 
roots  and  sprouts  are  well  started. 

References: — Farmers'  lUilletin,   Xo.  157  and  218. 

Id. — Pages  54-62. 

G.  &  M.— Pages  83-84. 


GR\PEVI?JE  WEIyl.  TREI.l,ISED 


ELEMENTARY   AGBICULTURE  105 


LESSON  XXXVIII 

Title.— Plant  Stems. 

Season. — Any  season.    A  good  Winter  study. 

Object. — To  study  the  growth  and  structure  of  the 
different  kinds  of  plant  stems. 

Material. — Stems  of  corn-stalk,  and  branches  of  fruit- 
trees. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 

Give  to  each  pupil  a  section  of  corn-stalk  and  of 
a  tree  stem  about  six  inches  in  length. 

Compare  the  cross  sections  of  the  two  stems.  Note 
that  in  the  corn-stalk  the  woody  fibres  are  scattered 
irregularly  through  the  pith,  while  in  the  tree  stem 
the  wood  is  arranged  in  circles  around  the  pith.  Make 
drawings  of  the  cross  sections  to  show  this. 

Cut  the  stems  into  longitudinal  sections,  and 
make  drawings  to  show  the  arrangement  of  the  wood 
and  pith. 

These  two  kinds  of  stems  represent  the  two  great 
groups  of  flowering  plants  having  closed  seed  vessels, 
— monocotyledons  and  dicotyledons.  The  corn  stem 
belongs  to  the  former,  and  the  tree  stem  to  the 
latter.  The  grasses,  lilies,  palms,  etc.,  are  monocot- 
yledons, and  the  trees,  most  of  the  weeds  and  grains 
are  dicotyledons. 


106 


ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


Fill   out   the  table  below  with   several   examples 
of  the  kinds  of  stems  indicated : 


STEMS    ON   THE    BASIS   OF   HABIT    OF   GROWTH. 


Erect, 


Prostrate. 


Underground 


Condensed       stemless. 
bulb  stem. 


1.  What  purposes  do  stems  serve  to  the  plant? 

2.  For  what  purposes  do  plant  stems  serve  man? 

3.  Name  the  other  parts  of  the  plant  attached 
to  the  stem, 


ELEMENTARY  AGBICULTURE  107 


LESSON  XXXIX 

Title. — Leaves. 

Season.— Autumn  or  Spring. 

Object. — To    learn    something    of    the    structure  and 

function  of  leaves. 
Material. — Leaves    of   corn,    trees,   weeds,    etc.,    glass 
tumblers,  and  water. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

The  main  object  to  be  brought  out  in  the  study 
of  tliis  lesson  is  the  great  work  that  leaves  have  to  do 
and  the  important  relations  they  sustain  to  the  life  of 
the  plant. 

Pupils  should  copy  and  learn  the  following  points : 

1.  Leaves  spread  out  a  great  surface  through 
which  the  plant  takes  in  oxygen,  necessary  for  its 
life  and  growth. 

2.  Through  this  expanded  leaf-surface  the  car- 
bon-dioxide gas  of  the  air  enters,  and  in  the  sunlight 
the  green  leaf  makes  plant  food  out  of  the  carbon- 
dioxide  and  the  minerals  brought  up  in  solution  from 
the  soil.  As  one  result  of  this  process  in  the  leaf,  ox- 
ygen is  set  free. 

3.  After  the  leaf  has  used  all  the  food-material 
needed  from  the  sap-solution  brought  up  from  the  soil 
through  the  roots  and  stem,  the  excess  of  water  is 
thrown  off  by  the  leaf.    This  is  called  transpiration. 


108 


Otm    HUNOBICD    LESSONS    IK 


These  are  the  three  principal  uses  of  the  leaves  to 
the  plant.  Plant  food  is  manufactured  in  the  leaf  in 
the  form  of  starch,  and  sent  out  to  the  various  parts 
of  the  plant,  there  to  be  changed  into  root,  stem,  leaf, 
and  fruit  structure. 

Make  a  drawing  of  a  simple  leaf,  such  as  the  ma- 
ple leaf,  and  also  of  a  compound  leaf,  such  as  the  locust 
leaf. 


►:==-—  'tf^ 


TRANSPIBATION    FROM    LEAVES. 


The  following  experiment  will  show  that  plants 
give  off  moisture: 

Take  a  plant  that  is  well  started  in  a  flower-pot, 
a  piece  of  cardboard,  and  two  glass  tumblers  large 
enough  to  cover  the  plant.  Cut  a  slit  in  the  card- 
board and  draw  it  around  the  plant.  Seal 
the    slit    so   that    no    moisture    can    come    thrqugh 


fiLEMENTABY   AGRICULTUEE 


109 


it  from  below.  Cover  the  plant  with  the 
glass,  and  allow  the  roots  to  extend  into  the  water  of 
the  glass  below.  Moisture  will  collect  on  the  inner 
surface  of  the  glass.  Where  does  it  come  from?  Is 
all  the  moisture  absorbed  by  the  roots  given  off  in 
this  way?  How  could  you  find  out?  Why  do  plants 
need  water? 


References: — 

Id. — Pages   41-44. 

G.  &  M. — Pages  22-30. 


-^ 


•HAONIFTSU)  BEOnON  OF  UNDER- 
SIDE OF  LEAF  SHOWINa  BBEATHINO 
POBBS— A,  A,  ▲. 


110  ONE    HUNDBED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  XL 

Title.— A  Study  of  Fruits. 

Season. — At  any  time  when  the  fruit  can  be  had. 

Object. — To  learn  the  structure  and  classes  of  our 
common  fruit. 

Material. — For  each  pupil,  two  apples,  two  pears,  and 
a  few  peach  pits;  some  quince  and  plum  pits  if 
possible;  a  drawing  pencil  and  a  knife. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

1.  Let  each  pupil  take  an  apple  and  a  pear  and 
observe  the  blossom  end,  opposite  the  stem.  Here  is 
a  depression  called  the  basin.  This  was  the  base  of 
the  apple  and  pear  blossom.  Compare  with  the  blos- 
som end  of  the  peach  or  plum.  Explain  the  differ- 
ence. 

2.  Let  each  pupil  cut  the  fruits  through  the  cen- 
ter, in  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the  main  stem.  Ex- 
amine the  core,  the  cells  and  the  seeds.  How  many 
cells  are  there?  How  are  they  arranged?  Observe 
the  parchment-like  walls  of  the  cells.  How  many 
seeds  in  each  cell?  Make  a  drawing  of  the  cross  sec- 
tion of  the  pear  or  apple. 

3.  Compare  the  structure  of  the  plum  or  peach 
pits  with  the  apple  seeds.  Note  the  hard  shell-like 
covering  of  the  pits.  Crack  the  shelll  and  observe  the 
seed.    In  this  meaty  portion  lies  the  embyro,  which 


ELEMENTABY   AGRICULTURE  111 

will  grow  into  a  new  plant  under  proper  conditions 
of  air,  heat,  and  moisture.  Draw  cross  section  of  the 
peach. 

These  fruits  belong  to  the  two  classes  which  com- 
prise our  common  fruit-trees. 

1.  The  Pomaceous  fruit: 

Apple,  pear,  crab  apple,  quince,  etc. 

2.  The  Drupaceous  fruit : 

Plum,  peach,  cherry,  etc. 
Answer  the  following  questions: 

1.  What  fruits  have  a  depression  at  the  blosscfm 
end? 

2.  What  fruits  are  more  or  less  rounded  at  the 
blossom  end? 

3.  What  common  fruits  have  seeds? 

4.  What  three  common  fruits  have  pits? 

5.  How  much   space  does  the  core  take   up  in 
the  apple? 

6.  How  many  cells  in  the  core  of  the  apple? 

7.  How  do  pits  and  seeds  differ  in  structure? 

8.  What  are  the  general   differences  between  a 
pome  fruit  and  a  drupe  fruit? 

References  :—U   S.  Dept.  Bulletin,  No.  178. 


112  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  XLI 

Title. — Decay  in  Apples. 

Season. — At  any  time.    May  be  a  Winter  lesson. 

Object. — To  show  that  apples  should  not  be  shaken 
from  the  tree  and  allowed  to  fall  to  the  ground 
if  they  are  to  be  kept.     (Adapted  from  Davis). 

Material. — Three  ripe  apples,  and  weighing  scales. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

Select  three  ripe  apples  of  the  same  variety  and 
of  equal  degree  of  ripeness  and  bring  them  before  the 
class. 

1.  Strike  against  the  side  of  one  so  as  to  bruise 
the  surface  but  not  break  the  skin. 

2.  Bruise  the  second  apple  so  that  the  skin  is 
broken. 

3.  Leave  the  third  apple  uninjured. 

Blace  the  three  apples  away  somewhere  in  the 
room  where  they  will  not  be  disturbed,  and  observe 
the  results  from  day  to  day. 

1.  Which  apple  decays  first? 

2.  Of  what  use  is  the  skin  of  the  apple? 

3.  Take  two  apples  of  nearly  the  same  size,  and 
weigh  both.  Peel  one  and  leave  the  other  untouched. 
Weigh  both  apples  again  in  twenty-four  hours.  Which 
has  lost  the  most  in  weight?     Explain  the  cause. 

Note. — If  there  are  no  scales  in  the  school,  ask 
a  pupil   to  bring  this   instrument   from   his  home. 


ELEMENTABY  AGBICULTUBE 


113 


LESSON  XLII 

Title. — ^Judging  Apples. 

Season. — At  any  time.    May  be  a  Winter  study. 
Object. — To  learn  how  to  judge  and  score  apples. 
Material. — Apples,  pencil,  and  note-book. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 

Ask  the  pupils  to  bring  a  number  of  apples  to 
school  for  this  lesson.  If  each  pupil  will  bring 
four  or  five  of  the  same  variety  of  apples,  they  may 
be  arranged  on  a  plate  before  the  class  and  scored  as 
an  entry  exhibit.  Use  the  following  score  points, 
adapted  from  Davis  Agriculture: 


SCORE    CARD    FOR    JUDGING    APPLES. 
Owner   of   the    exhibit Date    . 


Points  Noted, 


Size   of  the   exhibit 


Perfect  Score.       Teacher's  Score.  Pupil's  Score. 

I  20  ~   I 


Size  of  fruit. 


15 


Color.                                    I 

15          1 
15          1 

Form.                                    1 

Quality.                                I 

15          1 

Freedom  from  Blemishes  I 

20          1 

Total                              1 

100          1 

When  single  plates  or  apples  are  scored  the  first 
point  may  be  graded  the  full  20  points. 


114  ONE    HUNDBED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  XLIII 

Title.— Pruning. 

Season. — May  be  a  Winter  or  early  Spring  lesson. 
Object. — To  learn  how  to  prune  fruit-trees. 
Material. — Fruit-trees  and  a  sharp  knife. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

Go  with  the  class  to  an  orchard.  If  this  is  not 
possible,  bring  into  the  school-room  a  large  branch  ot 
a  fruit-tree,  and  treat  it  as  a  small  tree  to  be  pruned. 

Look  about  in  the  orchard  and  try  to  find  places 
on  the  trees  where  branches  have  been  pruned  off. 
See  whether  those  cut  close  to  the  main  stem  or  those 
cut  a  little  way  from  it  healed  over  more  readily. 
What  does  your  observation  teach  you  as  to  the  place 
to  cut  a  branch  in  pruning? 

Would  you  use  a  saw  or  a  knife  in  pruning  the 
branches? 

How  could  you  keep  a  large  limb  from  splitting 
down  as  it  fell? 

How  could  you  protect  the  wound  where  a  large 
limb  was  pruned? 

Which  is  the  best  time  of  the  year  to  pruned 
Why? 

Note. — In  pruning  very  young  trees,  two  meth- 
ods are  usually  pursued: — 

First,   the    method   of. cutting      oflF   all    the    side 


ELEMENTARY   AGRICULTURE  115 

branches  to  one  or  two  buds,  leaving  a  single  straight 
central  stem. 

Second,  the  method  of  cutting  away  all  of  the 
branches  but  three  or  four  main  ones  which  are  left  to 
develop  into  a  more  or  less  spreading  growth. 

It  is  best  to  leave  the  branches  growing  rather 
low,  in  order  to  afiford  a  better  shade  for  the  trunk  and 
ground  beneath,  and  in  order  to  facilitate  the  gather- 
ing of  the  fruit. 

We  prune  for  the  following  reasons: 

1.  To  modify  the  vigor  of  the  plant. 

2.  To  produce  larger  and  better  fruit  or  flowers. 

3.  To  keep  the  plant  within  manageable  shape 
and  limits. 

4.  To  remove  dead  superfluous  or  injured  parts. 

5.  To  facilitate  spraying  and  harvesting. 

6.  To  facilitate  tillage. 

7.  To  make  the  plant  assume  a  more  desired 
form. 

Mild  pruning  every  year  tends  to  maintain  the 
balance  of  the  tree  and  make  it  more  fruitful. 

Select  a  tree  that  needs  pruning,  and  demonstrate 
before  the  class  the  proper  method  of  pruning  it.  If 
the  teacher  does  not  wish  to  make  this  demonstra- 
tion, perhaps  the  owner  of  the  orchard  or  some  other 
fruit-grower  could  be  called  into  service. 

References: — Farmers'    Bulletin,    No.    t8i. 
Id.— Pages  88  to  92. 


116  ONE    HUNDBfiD    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  XLIV 

Title.-— A  Hotbed  Garden. 
Season. — Early  Spring. 

Object. — To  learn  how  to  make  and  plant  a  hotbed. 
Material. — Spade,  some  boards,  manure,  and  window 
sash. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

The  teacher  may  look  at  this  lesson  and  think 
that  it  would  be  too  much  trouble  to  work  out ;  but  the 
results  of  the  experiment  will  justify  the  effort,  and 
it  can  be  successfully  done. 

As  early  as  March  select  a  place  at  the  south  side 
of  a  building  for  the  hotbed.  Dig  an  oblong  space 
three  feet  wide,  six  feet  long,  and  eighteen  inches 
deep.  Make  a  wall  of  posts  and  boards,  fitting  close 
to  the  sides  of  the  bed.  Make  the  back  wall  three 
feet  high  and  eighteen  inches  above  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  A  piece  of  two-by-four  joist  set  in 
from  back  to  front  across  the  middle  will  make  a 
support  for  the  window  sashes  which  are  to  cover 
the  bed.  When  the  bed  is  ready,  put  in  a  layer  of 
strawed  manure  that  has  been  piled  for  some 
time,  fill  in  about  nine  inches  of  the  manure  and 
tramp  it  down  firmly.  Then  add  a  second  layer  of  nine 
inches,  and  tramp  firmly  as  before. 


ELEMENTABY   AGEICULTURE  117 

Then  spread  four  inches  of  rich  garden  loam  over 
the  manure,  and  the  bed  is  ready.  Perhaps  some  of 
the  pupils  can  bring  whole  window  sashes  from  home 
to  cover  the  bed.  Two  sashes  three  feet  square  would 
make  the  necessary  cover. 

Early  lettuce,  radishes.  Early  Jersey  Wakefield 
cabbages,  the  Earliana  tomato,  onions,  and  other  vege- 
tables may  be  sown  thickly  in  rows  about  four  inches 
apart,  and  by  the  time  warm  weather  comes  the 
school  will  have  plants  to  supply  the  neighborhood, 
the  children  will  have  seen  many  interesting  things, 
and  the  school  will  have  found  a  new  source  of  co- 
operation with  the  home. 

In  the  hotbed  the  manure  warmed  the  soil  and 
the  glass  kept  the  heat  in  the  frame,  at  the  same  tmie 
that  it  allowed  the  plants  to  receive  sunlight.  The  soil 
should  be  watered  every  few  days,  and  on  the  bright 
days  the  sash  should  be  raised  to  admit  fresh  air  to 
the  little  seedlings. 

Have  the  pupils  draw  the  plan  of  the  hotbed, 
and  describe  the  preparation  and  planting. 


118 


ONE    HUNDRED     LESSONS    IN 


LESSON   XLV 

Title. — Field  Study  of  the  Common  Grains. 
Season. — Summer  or  Autumn. 
Object. — To  compare  the  common  field  crops. 
Material. — Note-book  and  pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

Go  to  the  field  some  evening  at  four  o'clock  with 
the  class  in  agriculture.  Have  the  pupils  take  the 
following  table  of  directions  for  field  work,  and  make 
the  necessary  tabulations  in  the  field.  Other  points 
of  the  table  may  be  filled  in  after  the  discussion  of  the 
lesson  on  the  following  day : 


1 

1 
i 

60 

4i 

•a 

1  xNo.  Of 
;  Blades. 

1    No.  of 
:  Kernels. 

1 

0^ 

Time  of 
Planting. 

Time  of 
Harvestin 

Weight 
Bu. 

Corn. 

Wheat 

Oats 

Rye 

Barley 

EXJEMENTABY   AGBICULTUBK 


119 


LESSON  XLVI 

Title. — The  Best  Corn  in  the  Community. 

Season. — At  any  time. 

Object. — To  find  out  who  has  the  best  corn  in  the 

community. 
Material. — The  corn  and  scales  at  home. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 


Have  each  pupil  weigh  out  one  bushel  of  corn  in 
the  ear  at  home  and  bring  the  weights  to  school.  Let 
the  pupils  tabulate. the  results  as  follows,  and  let  each 
pupil   copy  the  weights  and  data  of  all  the  others. 


I 

*i 

*i 

*i 

Xi 

,/-'=' 

^^ 

be 

o    . 

^.^ 

a.£f 

<v 

hi 

HE 

be  K 

o^ 

il 

<D 

1" 

J-g 

U 

3  C3 

o  ;- 

C-i  > 

ci 

L^ 

^O 

^c 

> 

120  ONE    HUNDBEO    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  XLVII 

Title. — Propagation  of  Raspberries. 

Season. — Autumn. 

Object. — To  learn  the  method  of  propagation  in  the 

black  and  the  red  raspberry. 
Material. — Red  and  black  raspberry  plants. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 

Go  with  the  class  to  a  garden  or  field  where  the 
black  and  the  red  raspberry  grow.  Call  attention  to  the 
fact  that  the  black  raspberry  bends  over  ind  that  the 
tip  takes  root  in  the  ground  and '  propagates  in  this 
way.  If  none  have  taken  root  in  this  way,  a  stalk 
should  be  bent  over  and  covered  with  earth  to  allow 
the  tip  to  take  root. 

Notice  that  the  red  raspberry  does  not  bend  over 
and  root  at  the  tip  as  the  black  raspberry  does,  but 
that  new  stalks  spring  up  at  intervals  from  the  root 
under  ground.  The  red  raspberry  thus  spreads  rap- 
idly and  if  left  to  itself  will  spend  its  energy  in  grow- 
ing canes  rather  than  producing  berries.  This  can  be 
prevented  by  cutting  off  all  the  new  shoots  but  two 
or  three  for  the  next  year's  growth. 

Show  the  pupils  how  to  prune  both  varieties  in 
the  spring  in  order  to  have  the  canes  produce  the  most 
and  best  berries. 

Cut  away  the  last  year's  canes.     Cut  the  canes 


ELEMINTARY    AGBICULTURE 


121 


of  the  black  raspberries  that  have  bent  over  and  taken 
root,  so  that  there  shall  be  two  individual  canes  in- 
stead of  the  sing^le  one  rooted  at  both  ends. 

After  the  field  lesson,  have  the  pupils  write  a 
comparison  of  the  two  raspberries  as  to  habits  of 
growth  and  propagation,  basing  their  description  on 
the  observations  in  the  field. 

References: — 
Id.— Page  58-62. 
G.  &  M.— Page  82. 


RASPBERRY    LAYERING 


122  ONE    HUNDBKD    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON    XLVIII 

Title. — Raising  Cucumbers  in  the  Garden. 

Season. — Spring  or  Summer. 

Object. — To  show  how  to  prepare  and  plant  a  pro- 
ductive cucumber  bed. 

Material. — A  barrel,  spade,  manure,  and  cucumber 
seeds. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 

If  it  is  desired,  this  lesson  may  be  demonstrated 
upon  the  school-grounds,  or  in  a  garden  near  the 
school,  where  permission  is  granted. 

The  boys  of  the  class  may  do  this  work  under  the 
direction  of  the  teacher  and  for  the  observation  of  the 
class.  Select  a  fertile  spot  and  dig  a  hole  in  the 
ground  large  enough  to  sink  the  barrel  midway. 
Knock  the  bottom  out  of  the  barrel  and  set  it  in  the 
hole  in  the  ground.  Fill  the  earth  in  about  the  out- 
side of  the  barrel,  and  mound  the  soil  up  to  the  rim  of 
the  barrel  on  the  outside.  Now  fill  the  barrel  with 
manure,  packed  firmly,  and  keep  it  covered  to  prevent 
the  house  flies  from  breeding  in  it. 

The  bed  is  ready  for  planting.     Plant  five  or  six 

hills   of   cucumber    seeds   in    the    mound   heaped  up 

about  the  outside  of  the  barrel.    Put  about  ten  seeds 

in  a  hill,  and  when  the  plants  get  large  enough  to 

vine,  remove  half  of  them. 


ELEMENTABY   AGEICULTUBE  123 

Pour  several  pails  of  water  into  the  barrel  of  ma- 
nure each  day,  and  the  water  leaching  through  the 
manure,  will  furnish  the  best  of  fertilizer  for  the 
plants,  and  the  necessary  moisture  for  their  thrifty 
growth.  These  few  hills  will  furnish  an  abundance 
of  cucumbers,  and  upon  a  very  small  space  of  ground. 

If  this  lesson  cannot  be  demonstrated  at  school, 
it  is  worth  the  study  in  order  that  it  may  be  work'^d 
out  at  home  by  the  pupil  in  the  home  garden. 


124  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  XLIX 

Title.— The  Pea  Family. 

Season. — Spring   or   Autumn. 

Object. — To   learn   the   leguminous   plants   and   their 

value. 
Material. — Some    hand   lenses,   blossoms    or   pods   of 

beans,  peas^  and  clover,  and  an  entire  clover  plant 

showing  nodules  on  the  roots. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

The  group  of  plants  most  important  to  mankind 
is  the  great  grass  family,  which  includes  corn,  wheat, 
oats,  timothy,  and  others. 

The  second  group  in  importance  is  the  pea  family. 
These  plants  are  commonly  called  leguminous  plants. 
Preceding  lessons  have  referred  to  the  great  value  of 
the  clover  and  the  cowpea.  Their  great  value  to  the 
soil  is  in  furnishing  a  congenial  home  for  the  bacteria, 
(which  are  microscopic  plants,  causing  the  nodules  on 
the  roots).  In  some  way  these  bactei^ia  take  nitro- 
gen from  the  air,  so  that  it  becomes  available  food 
for  the  growth  of  the  plant.  These  bacteria  do  not 
live  on  the  roots  of  any  common  plants  except  the 
legumes. 

The  reason  why  this  is  so  important,  is  because 
nitrogen  is  the  most  expensive  thing  that  the  farmer 
bins  in  fertilizers. 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


125 


126  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 

If  the  bacteria  are  not  in  the  soil  where  the  le- 
gume is  to  grow,  the  soil  may  be  inoculated  by  sprink- 
ling ft  with  soil  from  a  field  where  the  legume  has  for- 
merly grown. 

Specimen  roots  of  the  clover  showing  the  nodules 
should  be  before  the  class  for  observation.  Any  text 
in  Elementary  Agriculture  will  explain  the  work  of 
bacteria  on  the  legume  roots  in  further  detail. 

The  important  thing  here  is  to  learn  to  recognize 
the  leguminous  plants.  If  the  class  cannot  be  taken 
to  the  field  for  this  lesson,  the  following  plants  may  be 
brought  into  the  school-room:  clovers,  alfalfa,  peas, 
beans,  vetch,  black  locust,  and  all  plants  available 
with  pea-like  flowers. 

The  following  outline  for  study  is  suggested : 
:    I.  How  are  the  leaves  arranged? 

2.  Are  the  leaves  simple  (all  in  one  piece),  or 
compound  (divided  into  several  leaflets)  ? 

3.  What  two  kinds  of  compound  leaves  do  you  find  ? 
Draw  one  of  each,  as  the  pea  and  the  clover. 

4.  Describe  the  flower,  recalling  the  names  and 
parts  learned  in  a  former  lesson  on  the  flower. 

5.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  blossom. 

6.  Split  a  bean  or  pea  pod.     How  does  it  open? 

7.  Make  a  list  of  the  legumes  of  the  neighborhood. 
Write  to  Department  of  Agriculture,   Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  for  .^ample  of  inoculating  bacteria. 

References : — 
Id.— Pages  33-34. 
,        G.  &  M.— Pages  45-48. 


ELEMENTARY   AGRICULTURE  127 


LESSON  L 

Title.— No  Two  Plants  Alike. 

Season. — Autumn. 

Object. — To  show  the  great  fact  of  variation,  that  no 

two  plants  or  animals  are  alike. 
Material. — Any  two  or  more  plants  of  the  same  kind. 

A  number  of  stalks  of  the  same  variety  of  corn, 

grass,  wheat,  or  a  number  of  trees. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

The  method  is  to  see  a  plant  accurately  and  then 
compare  it  with  another  plant  of  the  same  kind.  Let 
any  two  stalks  of  corn  be  held  up  before  the  class ;  or, 
if  the  pupils  are  in  the  field,  each  one  may  select  two 
sta'uks  for  comparison.  Allow  no  guessing.  Measure 
and  observe  accurately.  Look  for  the  following 
points : 

1.  Height  of  the  plant. 

2.  Does  it  branch?  How  many  secondary  stems 
or  suckers  from  one  root? 

3.  Shade  or  color. 

4.  How  many  leaves? 

5.  Arrangement  of  leaves  on  the  stem. 

6.  Measure  length  and  breadth  of  six  main  leaves. 

7.  Number  and  position  of  ears.     Color  of  silks. 


128 


ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    lH 


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&LEMBNTABY  AGfilCULTUBtt  129 

8.  Size  of  tassel,  and  number  and  size  of  its 
branches. 

9.  Stage  of  maturity  or  ripeness  of  the  plant. 

10.  Has  the  plant  grown  symmetrically,  c  r  has  it 
been  crowded  by  other  plants,  or  been  olliged  to 
struggle  for  light  or  room  ? 

11.  Note  all  the  unusual  marks  or  features. 

12.  Note  the  comparative  vigor. 

These  points  may  be  used  with  any  two  plants 
with  slight  modification. 

(Adapted  from  Bailey  in  the  Cornell  Rural  School 
Leaflet.) 

References : — 
Farmers'   Bulletin,  229. 


130  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IK 


LESSON  LI 

Title. — Transplanting. 

Season. — Spring. 

Object. — To  learn  how  to  transplant,  and  what  plants 

are  usually  tjransplanted. 
Material. — Some   tomato-plants,   cabbage-plants,   pan- 

sies,  or  other  plants  in  the  school-room  and  2  box 

of  soil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 

This  lesson  should  be  given  in  connection  with 
the  school  garden  if  possible,  but  if  there  is  no  schoo^ 
garden,  the  transplanting  may  be  done  as  a  demonstra- 
tion in  a  window  garden  indoors. 

The  plants  usually  transplanted  are  the  tomato,, 
cabbage,  celery,  pansy,  and  young  trees. 

If  the  hotbed  has  been  made  at  the  school  there 
will  be  plenty  of  material  available.  It  is  an  impor- 
tant and  practical  lesson  to  learn.  The  following  rules 
will  guide  to  successful  transplanting: 

1.  Transplant  when  the  weather  is  cool  and 
damp,  preferable  in  the  late  afternoon. 

2.  Transplant  when  the  plant  is  young. 

3.  Break  the  roots  as  little  as  possible  in  taking 
the  young  plant  up,  and  keep  them  moist  and  shaded. 

4.  It  is  well  to  cut  oflF  some  of  the  top  in  trans- 
planting, in  order  to  restpre  the  balance  between  the 


ELEMENTABY  AGEICULTUEE  131 

root  and  top,  since  some  of  the  roots  were  probably 
lost  in  transplanting. 

5.  The  plant  should  be  dipped  in  water  and  have 
moist  fertile  soil  packed  firmly  about  the  roots.  If  wa- 
ter is  to  be  used  it  should  be  poured  about  the  roots 
before  all  the  soil  is  added. 

6.  The  plant  should  have  as  large  a  space  as  that 
in  which  it  originally  grew.  The  soil  should  be  put 
in  first  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole  in  which  the  roots 
are  to  grow,  and  the  subsoil,  if  any,  at  the  surface.  It 
is  important  to  make  the  soil  firm  about  the  roots. 

7.  It  is  sometimes  weU  to  shade  the  young  trans- 
plant a  few  days  from  the  hot  sunshine,  or  to  protect 
the  roots  with  a  mulch  of  straw  or  grass. 

The  pupils  in  agriculture  should  by  all  means  get 
some  actual  practice  in  transplanting,  if  in  no  other 
way  than  by  going  to  the  school  yard  and  getting  wild 
jjlants  to  transplant  in  pots  or  in  out-door  plots. 

References : — 

G.  &  M.— Pages  88-91. 


132  ONE    HUNDBEO    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  LII 

Title.— The  Toad,  the  Farmer^s  Friend. 
Season. — Any  time  when  toads  may  be  obtained. 
Object. — To  learn  the  value  of  the  common  toad. 
Material. — A  glass  tumbler,  some  mosquito  netting,  a 
screen  cage  and  some  insects. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND    METHOD 

Tlic  day  before  this  lesson  is  to  be  given,  tlie  teach- 
er, witli  the  pupils'  assistance,  should  have  a  box  about 
a  cubic  foot  in  size,  screened  off  on  two  opposite  sides 
with  common  door-screening,  and  a  little  hinged  door 
of  some  sort  made  through  which  the  toads  and  insects 
may  be  put  into  the  box. 

Place  two  toads  in  the  box  on  the  evening  be- 
fore the  lesson,  and  they  will  be  hungry  enough  to 
"show  off"  well  for  the  class.  Announce  the  plan  be- 
forehand, and  ask  the  pup?ls  to  bring  in  flies,  bugs,  but- 
terflies, caterpillars,  worms,  beetles,  etc. 

When  the  lesson  is  ready  to  begin,  place  the  box 
before  the  class,  put  all  the  insects  in  with  the  toads, 
and  watch  them  eat.  Such  an  interesting  sight  the 
pupils  seldom  see.  The  insects  disappear  as  if  by 
magic,  snapped  in  by  the  toad's  long  tongue  with  light- 
ning rapidity.  Have  some  pupil  count  how  many  in- 
sects the  toad  eats  during  the  recitation  time. 


ELEMENTABY  AGEICULTUBE  133 

Place  one  toad  in  the  glass  tumbler,  cover  with 
a  mosquito  netting  and  pass  it  around  among  the  pu- 
pils, so  that  all  may  see  the  beautiful  eyes — ,  ''the  fabled 
jewel"  in  the  toad's  head. 

While  the  observation  is  going  on,  the  following 
points  should  be  brought  out : 

The  toad  does  more  to  rid  the  garden  and  field  of 
noxious  insects  than  any  one  species  of  bird,  and  he 
has  solved  the  problem  of  insecticides  better  tha^i 
man  with  all  his  bungling  spray-machines. 

The  toad  has  a  "homeing  instinct,''  and  should 
be  placed  in  yards,  gardens  and  fields  and  become 
one  of  our  most  valued  domestic  animals.  A  little 
stone  house,  containing  a  shallow  jar  of  water  will 
furnish  an  attractive  home  for  the  toad  in  the  garden, 
and  he  will  go  forth  at  night  like  the  lubber  fiend,  to 
do  our  tasks  while  we  sleep. 

Laws  should  be  passed  preventing  the  small  boy 
from  killing  all  the  toads  he  cares  to.  The  toad  is 
absolutely  harmless,  and  the  old  wart  superstition  is 
mere  "bosh,"  and  the  toads  ugliness,  so-called,  becomes 
transformed  into  real  beauty,  when  we  see  its  great  ser- 
vice in  the  economy  of  nature.  The  fact  that  the  toad 
sometimes  gets  into  wells  reflects  on  the  thriftless 
methods  of  the  man  who  leaves  his  wells  open,  rather 
than  upon  the  thirst  of  the  poor  toad  which  falls  in, 
in  its  search  for  the  water,  the  man  should  provide  for 
it. 

In  these  days  of  increasing  insect  pests,  it  be- 
hooves us  to  encourage  and  protect  all  of  the  natural 
enemies  of  our  plant  destroyers,  and  a  few  toads  in  a 


134  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 

garden  will  go  far  toward  controlling  the  cut  worms, 
caterpillars,  and  the  leaf-eating  beetles. 

The  toad  is  full  of  vital  intercbt  from  its  egg  stage, 
through  the  tad-pole  development,  to  the  adult,  and  the 
horror  and  disgust  with  which  this  harmless  beneficial 
friend  is  viewed  by  many  boys  and  girls  should  be 
changed  to  intelligent  sympathy  and  active  apprecia- 
tion in  its  behalf. 

References : — 

G.   &   M. — Pages    146-147. 


THE    TOAD 


ELEMENTABY  AGBICULTUBE  135 


LESSON  LIII 

Title. — Types  of  Horses.     The  Driving  Horse. 
Season. — May  be  a  Winter  lesson. 
Object. — To  teach  the  pupil  to  see  a  horse  when  he 
looks  at  him,  and  to  recognize  the  driving  type. 
Material. — A  driving  horse  before  the  class. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

By  comparing  the  horses  we  see  on  the  road,  we 
observe  that  there  are  different  forms  or  types.  Some 
have  a  form  that  enables  them  to  draw  a  heavy  load 
at  a  slow  pace,  while  others  have  a  form  adapted  to 
drawing  light  loads  at  a  rapid  pace.  These  represent 
two  distinct  types,  and  are  called,  draft  horses  and 
driving  horses. 

In  this  lesson  we  are  to  study  the  driving  horse. 
You  will  observe  that  the  driving  horse  has  a  long 
graceful  neck,  a  narrow  chest,  long  body  and  legs. 
In  the  driving  horse  weight  is  not  so  important  as  in 
the  draft  horse.  Speed  and  endurance  seem  to  be  the 
principal  points  sought  in  the  roadster.  The  driving 
horse  varies  widely  in  height  and  weight. 

The  following  points  any  school  boy  should  recog- 
nize in  a  good  driving  horse : 

1.  The  color  is  not  so  important  in  this  type  of 
horses.  The  dark  colors,  bay  or  sorrel  are  always  the 
most  esteemed. 

2.  Geldings  are  to  be  preferred. 


136 


ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


3.  The  horse  should  be  fifteen  to  sixteen  hands 
high  at  the  withers. 

4.  Conformation.  The  horse  should  be  harmoni- 
ous, unblemished,  withers  full  muscled,  and  loins  slight- 
ly weak,  but  powerful  croup,  thighs,  buttocks,  legs  and 
hocks  are  essential. 


THE  DRIVINO  HORSB 

5.  The  neck  should  be  long,  chest  large  and  deep, 
limbs  clean  and  long,  and  muscles  and  joints  showing 
graceful  prominence. 

6.  The  animal  should  have  good  life  and  not  be 
afraid  of  ordinary  objects. 

The  teacher  should  study  the  following  score  card 
for  light  horses,  and  if  the  proper  explanations  be 
made,  pupils  of  the  eighth  grade  will  be  able  to  mark 
the  card  and  score  the  horse  fairly  well : 


ELEMENTASY   AGBICULTUBE 


137 


P^^'L-^^-^'       ^^^S'^  '    f       -    .    •«w-» 


A  WELL  PROPORTIONED  HORSE 

-Forehead  ;    b — ^Muzzle  ;   c — Withers  ;    d — Breast ;    e — Arm  ;    f — Back 

g — ^Belly;  h — Hip;  i — Hock;  j — Croup;  k — Dock;  1 — Knee; 

m — Cannon;   n — Fetlock;   o — Pastern. 

(Courtesy  of  Cornell  Rural  Leaflets.) 


138  ONE    HUHDBED    LESSONS    IN 

SCORE   CARD    FOR    LIGHT   HORSE. 


Frame — Smooth,    evenly    proportioned 4 

Quality — Bone  clean  and  hard,  tendons  well 
defined,  veins  prominent,  skin  and  hair  fine  5 

Temperament — Active    but    kind 3 

Head — Lean    and    symetrical 1 

Forehead — Full    and    broad 1 

Byes — Large,   clear,  open,   and   bright 1 

Ears — Close  together,  medium  in  size,  pointed 

to  carry  well  forward 1 

Muzzle — Clean    and    fine,    nostrils    large,    lips 

thin    and    even 1 

Neck — Muscular,    crest   high,    windpipe 

prominent     1 

Shoulders — Long,    oblique,   well    muscled 2 

Arms — Short,    thrown    forward 1 

Fore-arms — Long,     wide 2 

Knees — Wide,    straight,    and    clean 2 

Cannons — Short,    wide,    sinews    large 2 

Fetlock — Wide,     straight 1 

Pasterns — Strong,    angle    with    ground    45 

degrees     3 

Feet — Medium  and  even  in  size,  horn  dense, 
frog    large,      elastic,      bars      strong,      sole 

concave,    heel   wide    6 

Legs — Viewed  in  front,  a  perpendicular  from 
point  of  shoulder  should  cut  the  center  of 
knee  cannon,  pastern  and  foot  viewed  from 
side,  a  perpendicular  from  center  of  elbow 
should,  cut  the  center  of  knee  and   pastern 

joint  and  the   back  of  hoof 4 

Withers — Well   finished   and   muscled    at   top.    1 

Chest — Deep,    low,     large 2 

Ribs — Long,    sprung,    close 2 

Back — Straight,   short,   broad,   well   muscled.  .   2 

Loin — Wide,    short   and    thick 2 

Underline — Short,     straight ' 1 

Hips — Wide,    level 2 

Croup — Long,   wide,    muscular 2 

Tail — Attached   high,   well   carried 1 

Thighs — Muscular,    long,     and    spread 2 

Quarters — Deep    and    heavily    muscled 2 

Gaskin — Muscular,    long    and   wide 2 

Hocks — Clean,    wide,    straight 5 

Cannons — Short,   wide,   and   clean 2 

Fetlocks — Wide,     straight 1 

Pastern — Strong,     sloping 2 

Feet — Same   as    fore   feet 4 

Legs — From  behind,  perpendicular  from  point 
of  buttock  cuts  center  of  hock,  cannon, 
pastern  and  foot ;  from  side,  perpendicular 
from  point  of  hip  should  fall  on  center  of 
foot  and  divide  gaskin  in  the  middle  and 
perpendicular      from      buttock      should      be 

parallel  with  cannon    4 

Action — Walk  quick,  elastic,  trot  rapid, 
straight,    regular    and    high 20 


ELEMENTARY    AGRICULTURE  139 


LESSON  LIV 

Title.— The   Draft   Horse. 

Season. — At  any  time.     May  be  a  Winter  study. 

Object. — To   learn,   to   recognize,   and   to   jndge   the 

draft  horse. 
Material. — A  draft  horse  before  the  class.  A  yard  stick 

or  tape  line. 

SrBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

Arrange  to  have  a  draft  horse  in  the  school  yard 
for  this  lesson. 

Call  attention  to  the  short  legs,  heavy  body,  short, 
thick  neck,  broad,  deep  chest  and  shoulders,  strong 
hocks  and  rather  large  joints  and  feet.  With  the  draft 
type  weight  is  one  of  the  most  important  considera- 
tions. A  draft  horse  may  weigh  from  1,500  to  2,090 
pounds.  The  heavy  horse  in  harness  brings  greater 
power  into  the  collar  than  does  the  light  one. 

There  are  several  different  breeds  of  draft  horses. 
The  Percherons,  Belgians,  Clydesdales,  and  English 
Shires  are  the  common  breeds. 

Professor  Whipple  of  West  Virginia  University 
suggests  the  following  points  that  any  school  boy 
should  recognize  in  a  good  draft  horse: 

1.  The  best  selling  colors  are:  bay,  chestnut, 
brown,  roan,  black,  and  iron  grey. 

2.  Body  conformation,  massive    low-set,  ample. 


140  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    iN 

very  muscular,  short-flanked,  cylindrical,  large  and 
broad  limbs,  good  feet,  good  face,  ardor  and  endur- 
ance. 

3.  The  horse  should  be  at  least  sixteen  hands 
high  at  the  withers. 

^I-.  The  animal  should  be  sound,  and  the  follow- 
ing blemishes  should  always  be  in  mind  in  examining 
a  horse : 

Spavin,  curb,  thorough-pin,  sidebones,  splints, 
Sweeney,  sprung  knees,  faulty  hoofs,  poor  eye  sight, 
string  halt,  poor  wind,  parrot  mouth,  blindness,  etc. 

5.  The  horse  should  have  good  life  but  be  gen- 
tle. 

While  the  horse  is  present  for  this  lesson,  some 
interesting  and  profitable  measurements  may  be  made, 
which  should  teach  the  pupils  to  recognize  good  pro- 
portions in  the  horse. 

Three  important  points  for  measurements  are, 
length  of  the  head,  total  length  of  the  body,  and  the 
total  height  of  the  body. 

Use  an  ordinary  tape  measure  in  this  part  of  the 
exercise. 

1.  The  height  of  the  horse,  from  the  top  of  the 
withers  to  the  ground. 

2.  The  height  of  the  horse  from  the  hips  to  the 
ground. 

3.  Length  of  the  body  from  the  point  of  the  el- 
bow to  the  back  of  the  buttock. 

4.  The  length  of  the  head. 

It  will  be  found  in  a  horse  of  good  proportions 
that  the  first  three  measurements  each  equal  about  two 
and  one-half  times  the  length  of  the  head. 


ELEMENl.VBY   AGBICULTURtt 


141 


If  we  take  the  total  length  of  the  horse's  head,  and 
compare  it  with  the  body  of  a  well  formed  horse,  we 
will  find  that  there  are  four  other  measurements  al- 
most exactly  equal  to  it  as  follows : 

1.  The  length  of  the  neck  from  the  top  of  the 
withers  to  the  poll.  If  there  is  much  difference  between 
these  measurements,  we  say  that  the  head  is  too  long 
orihe  neck  is  too  short. 

2.  The  height  of  the  shoulder  from  the  top  of  the 
withers  to  the  point  of  the  elbow. 

3.  The  thickness  of  the  body  from  the  middle  of 
the  abdomen  to  the  middle  of  the  back.     If  there  is  a 


THE  DRAFT  HORSE 


142  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 

great  variation  in  these  measurements,  we  say  the 
horse  has  a  poor  form. 

4.  The  width  of  the  body  from  one  side  to  the 
other. 

A  better  instrument  for  taking  the  measurements 
of  a  horse,  as  suggested  by  Mr.  Harper  in  the  Cornell 
Iviiral  School  Leaflets,  is  as  follojys.  A  piece  of  soft 
white  pine  two  inches  wide,  one-half  inch  thick,  and 
four  feet  long;  to  one  end  of  this,  and  at  right  angles  to 
it,  tack  a  similar  piece  of  pine  18  inches  long;  to  the 
other  end  strap  loosely  an  ordinary  carpenter's  square  at 
that  it  may  slide  back  and  forth.  Now  mark  off  the 
long  piece  into  inches,  beginning  at  the  inside  of  the 
right  angle. 

*'Ay !  gather  your  reins  and  crack  your  thong. 
And  bid  your  steed  go  faster ; 
He  does  not  know  as  he  scrambles  along, 
That  he  ha?  a  fool  for  a  master." 

Holmes. 

References : — 

Id. — Pages   1 83 -19 1. 

Extension  bulletin,  No.  5.     Ohio  State  University. 

O.  &'   M.— Pages   177-182. 


ELEMENTABY  AGBICULTUHE  143 


LESSON  LV 

Title.— The  Dairy  Cow. 

Season. — May  be  a  Winter  c'udy. 

Object. — To  learn  to  recognize  and  judge  the  dairy 

cow. 
Material. — A  dairy  cow  before  the  class. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 

For  this  lesson  have  a  dairy  cow  brought  into 
the  school  yard,  and  as  the  class  observes  the  cow 
the  teacher  should  speak  briefly  upon  the  following 
points. 

Cattle  are  kept  for  two  main  purposes ;  for  the 
production  of  milk  and  for  the  production  of  beef. 
These  two  purposes  make  different  demands  upon  the 
energies  of  the  animal,  and  thus  through  many  gen- 
erations of  selection  and  development,  there  have  arisen 
two  types  of  cattle,  the  beef  form  or  type,  and  the  milk 
form  or  type.  These  two  forms  are  not  entirely  dis- 
tinct or  separate,  but  they  tend  to  merge  into  inter- 
mediate forms. 

The  chief  differences  that  distinguish  the  beef 
and  the   dairy   types   are : 

1.  Outline  of  body. 

2.  Depth  and  smoothness  of  flesh. 

3.  Size  of  udders. 

In  the  dairy  type  the  general  outline  of  body  is 


144  ONE    HUNOB£D    LESSONS    IN 

wedge-shaped  from  before  backward.  This  is  due 
to  a  large  development  of  the  hind  quarters,  and  some- 
times by  low  thin  shoulders.  The  height  of  the  animal 
at  the  hip  is  from  one-half  to  one  inch  greater  than 
at  the  shoulders.  The  wedge-shaped  appearance  is 
increased  by  a  large  and  pendulous  abdomen,  and  by 
a  large  and  well  developed  udder.  In  the  dairy  type 
there  is  less  muscular  development  and  more  spare 
angular  appearance.  The  animal  may  be  fat  enough 
and  still  present  this  spare  appearance.  In  the  dairy 
type  the  udder  is  much  larger  and  fuller  than  in  the 
beef  type,  and  the  so-called  "milk-veins'*  stand  out 
prominently. 

The  dairy  breeds  are  the  Jersey,  Guernsey,  Ayr- 
shire, Holstein,  etc. 

References : — 

Id. — Pages  192-197 — 216. 

G.  &  M. — Pages  154-156. 


ELEMENTABY  AGBICULTUEE 


145 


While  the  cow  is  before  the  class  the  pupils  should 
each  score  the  animal,  using  the  following  score-card, 
which  explains  how  the  points  should  be  marked: 


SCORE  CARD  FOR  DAIRY  COWS. 

Student's   Name Date . . 

Breed    Age    Weight 


General — 
Form — Wedge     shaped,    viewed    from     front, 

side   and    top 

Quality — Hair   and   skin   fine    and   mellow,    skin 

loose   and    thin 

Temperament  —  Nervous 

Head   and   Neck — 

Muzzle — Large  and  clean,  nostrils  large .  . 

Eyes — Large,  brilliant  full  and  mild 

Face — Dishing    and    lean 

Forehead  —   Broad 

Ears — Medium   in  size,   fine  in  texture,  with  no 

long,    coarse    hair 

Horns — Waxy,   small,   and   fine   in   texture 

Neck — Fine,   clean,  with  little  or  no  dewlap .  .  .  . 

Forequarters — 

Withers — Short,   lean   and  thin 

Shoulders — Light,    lean    and    oblique  ^ 

Legs — Short,   straight   and  fine 

Body — 

Chest — Deep,    wide,    girth    large 

Bowel — Ribs    arched,    long,    and    wide    apart; 

stomach    large    and   roomy 

Back — straight,     lean ;     spines    prominent     and 

wide    apart    

Loin  —   Broad - 

Navel  —  Large 

Hindquarters — 

Hips — Far    apart,    level 

Rump — Long  level    

Pinbones    and   Thurlis — High,    wide    apart,    and 

prominent     

Tail — Reaching  to  hocks,  fine 

Thighs — Thin,    long 

Escutcheon — High    and    spreading    

Udder — High  behind,  extending  well  forward  in 

front ;    quarters    even ;    teats    evenly    placed ; 

udder   not    fleshy 


10 

8 
6 

1 
1 
1 
1 

1 
1 
1 

2 

2 

1 

12 

12 

2 
2 
2 

2 
2 

3 
1 
4 
2 


20 


146 


OKE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


r-l 

o 
o 

A 

^& 

I— I 

<^ 

Q  « 

c 


So 
o 


ELEMENTARY   AGRICULTURE  147 


LESSON  LVI 

Title.— The  Beef  Cow. 

Season. — May  be  a  Winter  study. 

Object. — To  learn  to  recognize  and  to  judge  the  beef 

type  of  cattle. 
Material. — A  beef  cow  before  the  class. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

This  lesson  should  follow  lesson  55,  so  that  the 
comparison  of  the  two  types  may  be  brought  out  more 
clearly.  Present  to  the  class  the  chief  characteristics 
of  the  beef  cow  as  follows: 

In  the  beef  form  the  outline  of  the  body  approach- 
es the  rectangular.  The  general  contour  of  the  top 
and  bottom  line  is  straight  and  parallel,  and  the  general 
dimensions  of  the  body  approximate  those  of  a  brick. 
In  the  best  beef  animal  the  whole  body  is  thickly  and 
smoothly  covered  with  flesh,  so  that  the  angles  of 
the  bones  are  not  prominent.  The  neck  is  short,  and 
the  whole  body  has  a  rounded  appearance.  In  the 
beef  type,  not  only  is  the  udder  small,  but  the  veins 
leading  from  it  are  small  and  more  or  less  embedded 
in  the  surrounding  muscular  and  fatty  tissue. 

The  principal  beef  breeds  are: 

1.  Aberdeen- Angus. 

2.  Galloway. 

^|i^  Shorthorn  or  Durham. 


148 


ONE    HUNDBED    LESSONS    IN 


o 
o- 

ffl  ::: 

H    C 


ELEMKNTABY   AGBICULTUBE 


149 


4.  Hereford. 

5.  Sussex. 

Use  the  following  score  card  and  judge  the  points 
in  the  animal  before  the  class: 


SCORE  CARD  FOR  BEEF  CATTLE. 
Student's   Name   Date 


General — 

Weight — Score    according   to    age 

Form — Broad,   deep   and   massive;   top   line    and 

under   line   straight ;    legs   short 

Quality — Hair  fine,  skin  pliable,  evenly  fleshed, 

deep  meated,   especially  in  the  valuable  cuts .  . 

Head   and    Neck — 

Forehead — Broad   and   full 

Eyes — Bright,    clear  and   large 

Face — Short,    quiet    expression    

Muzzle — Mouth  large,   jaw  wide,   nostril   large... 

Ears — Fine  texture,   medium  in  size 

Horns — Medium  in   size,  fine  in   texture,   waxy. . 
Neck — Short  and   thick,    with    no    loose    skin .  .  .  . 

Forequarters — 
Shoulder — Well   covered   with   compact   flesh   on 

top   and   bottom,    and    smooth ;    shoulder   vein 

filled  out  so  as  to  make  a  smooth  connection 

with   the   neck    

Brisket — Prominent,    showing    well    forward    of 

the   legs  viewed   from  the  side 

Dewlap — Should  not  have  a  surplus  of  loose  skin . 
Legs — Short  and  straight,  arms  full  and  smooth . 

Body — 

Chest — Full,   wide,   deep,   girth   large 

Ribs — ^Arched,   long,   and  thickly  fleshed 

Back — Straight,     broad,      smooth,      evenly     and 

deeply    meated    

Loin — Broad  and  thick 

Flank — Deep     and     full,      making     a     straight 

underline     

Hindquarters — 
Rump — Long,     wide     and     smooth,     no     bunches 

of    flesh    at   tail 

Hips — Smooth   and  well   covered   with   meat 

Pinbones — Far  apart  but  not  prominent 

Thighs — Deep,    wide    and    full 

Twist — Deep    and    full     

Purse — Full,    fleshy     

Legs — Short,    straight   and   smooth 

Total     


2 

0 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

100 

iSO  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IJH 


LESSON  LVII 

Title.— The  Composition  of  Milk. 
Season. — May  be  a  Winter  study. 
Object. — To  learn  some  of  the  contents  of  milk,  and 

to  realize  the  importance  of  this  subject  for  study. 
Material. — A  quart  of  fresh  milk,  thermometer,  saucer, 

pan,  bottle,  and  a  few  drops  of  vinegar. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 

Learn  the  following  facts  about  milk: 
Milk  consists  of  about  seven-eighths  water  and 
one-eighth  substances  in  solution  in  the  water  or  float- 
ing in  it  in  very  small  particles.  You  may  be  sur- 
prised to  learn  that  so  large  a  propo/tion  of  milk  is 
water.  This  is  true  not  only  of  milk  but  of  many  of 
onr  most  important  foods. 

The  constituents  of  milk  are  often  referred  to  as 
Water  and  total  solids;  fat  casein,  albumen,  sugar  and 
asli.  A  chemist  can  separate  these  substances  with 
great  accuracy,  but  by  the  following  methods  we  can 
make  a  gross  analysis: 

1.  Leave  a  little  milk  in  a  saucer  for  a  short 
time  in  a  warm  place.  The  water  will  evaporate  and 
leave  the  solids  in  dry  form. 

2.  Separation  of  fat.  Let  a  quart  of  fresh  milk 
quietly  stand  in  a  shallow  pan,  in  a  cool  place,  until 
a    layer    of    cream    gathers    at    the    top.     This    cream 


ELEMENTARY   AGBIOULTUBE  151 

is  formed  by  the  rising  of  tiny  globules  of  butter-fat, 
which  were  distributed  evenly  through  the  fresh 
milk.  The  fat  is  so  much  lighter  than  the  liquid  in 
which  it  floats  that  it  will  rise  in  the  cream  layer  in 
about  twelve  hours.  This  fat  is  a  constituent  of  butter 
and  of  some  forms  of  cheese. 

3.  Separation  of  Casein.  Add  a  few  drops  of 
acid,  vinegar  will  do,  to  the  skimmed  milk.  Soon  it 
will  thicken.  Gently  warm  it  now  to  about  one  hun- 
dred degrees  and  carefully  break  the  thickened  sur- 
face with  a  knife,  and  the  skimmed  milk  will  be  seen 
to  separate  into  curd  and  whey.  Now  strain  through 
a  cloth,  and  the  casein  will  remain  in  the  cloth,  while 
the  whey  passes  through.  This  casein  is  one  of  the 
principal   parts  of  cheese. 

4.  Separation  of  Albumen.  Slowly  heat  the 
whey  to  i6o  degrees  F.  It  will  become  cloudy  and 
soon  a  soft  jelly-like  substance  will  collect  on  the 
surface.  This  is  the  albumen.  This  can  now  be  sep- 
arated by  straining. 

5.  Separation  of  sugar.  Take  a  sm&ll  quan- 
tity of  the  whey  from  which  the  albumen  has  been 
separated,  place  in  a  saucer  and  warm  gently  un- 
til the  water  has  been  evaporated.  A  dry  substance 
remains.  This  is  about  seven-eighths  milk-sugar  and 
one-eighth  ash. 

6.  Separation  of  ash.  It  will  not  be  possible 
to  separate  the  ash  and  sugar  in  pure  form.  Heat 
the  mixture  in  a  dish  or  on  the  stove  cover,  and  allow 
to  burn  as  long  as  it  will.  The  small  residue  left  is  the 
milk  ash. 

(Adapted  from  Cornell  Rural  School  I^eaflet.) 


162 


ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


ELEMENTABY  AGBICULTUEE  158 


LESSON  LVIII 

Title.— The  Souring  of  Milk. 

Season. — May  be  a  Winter  study. 

Object. — To  learn  how  milk  sours  and  how  to  care 

for  it. 
Material. — Text-book  and  note-book  lesson. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND    METHOD 

Discuss  with  the  class  the  following  points,  and 
for  the  note-book  work  of  this  lesson  require  the  stu- 
dents to  write  a  paragraph  on  the  care  of  milk,  and 
copy  the  drawing  as  shown  in  the  figure  into  their 
note-books. 

In  another  lesson  we  have  spoken  of  the  little 
plants  called  bacteria,  which  live  at  the  roots  of  the 
legumes  and  take  nitrogen  from  the  air  to  help  make 
the  plant  food.  In  this  lesson  we  are  to  learn  of 
another  kind  of  bacteria  living  in  milk  and  causing  it 
to  sour.  In  the  first  place,  milk  sours  because  bac- 
teria from  the  air  fall  into  it,  begin  to  grow,  and 
soon  change  the  sugar  of  the  milk  to  an  acid. 

These  bacteria  are  in  the  air,  in  water,  in  barn 
dust,  on  bits  of  hay  and  on  the  cow.  They  are  most 
plentiful  in  sour  milk,  and  if  we  should  pour  a  little 
sour  milk  into  the  fresh  milk  the  latter  would  sour  more 
quickly.     The  same  thing  happens  when  peo^l^^mit 

rr     HE 
UNIVERSITY 


154  onjl  hundred  lessons  in 

fresh  milk  into  poorly  cleaned  pails.  It  follows  that 
all  utensils  used  in  the  dairy  should  be  thoroughly 
scalded  so  as  to  kill  all  the  germs  that  cause  the  milk 
to  sour  quickly. 

Not  only  do  these  germs  which  cause  the  sour- 
ing of  the  milk  get  into  it,  but  the  germs  of  con- 
sumption and  typhoid  fever  will  also  live  in  milk 
and  thus  endanger  the  health  and  lives  of  all  who 
drink  it.  The  following  precautions  in  the  care  of 
milk  should  be  known  by  all  who  supply  us  with  this 
valuable  food: 

1.  Avoid  pitching  hay  or  making  beddings  or 
sweeping  in  the  barn  soon  before  milking  time,  if  the 
cows  are  to  be  milked  in  the  barn,  for  more  germs  fall 
into  the  milk  if  the  air  is  full  of  dust. 

2.  The  milker  should  wear  clean  clothes,  should 
have  clean  hands,  and  should  never  wet  his  hands  with 
the  milk. 

For  greater  cleanliness  and  safety  the  milk- 

o    '   -  °-^ 
•  - -/' 


?6  r^'o^^-^'.rg 


a — Pure.  b — Bacteria 

PURB   AND   IMPURE   MILK 
(Courtesy  of  B.  F.  Johnson  Pub.  Co.) 


ELEMENTARY  AGEICULTURE  155 

man  should  curry  the  sides  of  the  cow,  and  moisten 
the  parts  nearest  him  to  prevent  dust  from  falling 
from  the  cow  into  the  milk. 

4.  The  first  few  streams  of  milk  from  each  teat 
should  be  thrown  away,  because  the  milk  at  the  mouth 
of  the  teat  has  been  exposed  to  the  air,  is  full  of  germs, 
and  will  cause  the  rest  of  the  milk  to  sour  sooner. 

5.  Every  vessel  used  in  the  handling  of  the  milk 
should  be  scrupulously  clean. 

6.  The  surface  of  the  milk  should  not  be  left 
exposed  to  the  air  of  the  cellar,  living  rooms,  or  any 
place  where  dust  and  germs  may  fall  into  it. 

7.  To  test  for  formalin  in  milk,  add  a  few  drops 
of  ferric  chloride,  then  pour  sulphuric  acid  into  ide 
milk,  letting  it  run  down  the  .^ide  of  the  glass.  A  purple 
color  at  the  junction  of  the  milk  and  acid,  indicates  the 
presence  of  formalin. 

8.  Promptly  cool  and  aerate  the  milk  to  prevent 
development  of  bacteria. 

9.  The  cows  should  be  healthy,  especially  as  re- 
lated to  tuberculosis. 

10.  The  stables  shouM  l:e  well  lighted  and  ven- 
tilated. 

References : — 

Id. — Pages  220-227. 

G.  &  M.— Pages  160-168. 


156  OmC    HUNDBED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  LIX 

Title. — The  Babcock  Test  for  Butter-fat  in  Milk. 

Season. — May  be  a  Winter  lesson. 

Object. — To  become  familiar  with  the  Babcock  method 
of  showing  the  richness  of  milk. 

Material. — A  hand-power  Babcock  tester,  at  least  two 
milk  test-bottles,  one  pipette  to  measure  the  milk, 
one  acid  measure,  about  one  pint  of  sulphuric  acid, 
a  few  ounces  of  milk  and  some  hot  water.  A  good 
tester  can  be  obtained  from  D.  H.  Burrell  &  Co., 
Little  Falls,  N.  Y.,  at  small  cost.  Sulphuric  acid 
is  sold  at  all  drug  stores. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

If  the  school  can  not  be  provided  with  a  Babcock 
tester,  this  lesson  will  have  to  be  omitted.  The  les- 
son is  such  an  important  one,  and  the  ownership  of  a 
Babcock  tester  by  the  school  would  be  such  a  valu- 
able thing  for  the  whole  community,  that  the  teacher 
should  make  every  effort  to  get  the  material  for  this 
lesson. 

Because  of  its  simplicity,  accuracy,  and  ease  of 
operation,  the  Babcock  test  has  become  the  standard 
test  for  determining  the  value  of  milk  and  cream  as 
delivered  to  the  cheese  factoires,  creameries,  and  all  milk 
stations  over  this  country. 

Complete  directions  for  using  come  with  every 


ELEMENTARY  AGBICXJLTUBE  157 

machine,  and  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  give  them 
here.  Observe  great  care  for  accuracy.  Have  some 
pupil  bring  a  sample  of  milk  from  one  of  the  cows  at 
home.  The  sample  should  be  taken  soon  after  the 
milking  is  done,  and  the  milk  has  been  poured  two  or 
three  times  from  one  vessel  to  another  so  as  to  be 
thoroughly  mixed.  Take  about  a  half  cupful  as  a 
sample  and  put  it  into  a  clean  bottle.  From  this  bottle 
the  sample  is  drawn  for  testing,  after  mixing  the  con- 
tents of  the  bottle  thoroughly. 

Having  determined  the  per  cent  of  butter-fat  in 
the  sample,  an  estimate  can  be  made  of  the  total 
amount  of  butter- fat  in  a  gallon  of  milk.  (A  gallon 
weighs  8%.  pounds.) 

Make  many  tests  of  the  same  cow's  milk  to  deter- 
mine its  richness.  A  pound  of  butter-fat  should  make, 
in  ordinary  practice,  about  i .  i  pound  of  butter,  and  the 
pupils  can  compare  the  price  paid  for  butter  and  for 
the  butter-fat  if  sold  at  the  creameries,  and  determine 
which  method  of  sale  is  better. 

If  the  school  is  in  a  dairy  district,  this  lesson  will 
furnish  work  for  several  weeks,  and*  be  profitable  to  pa- 
trons as  well  as  to  pupils. 

References  :—G.   &   M.— Pages    163   and  217. 


158  ONE    HUNDBED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  LX 

Title.-— Sheep. 

Season. — A  Winter  lesson. 

Object. — To   learn   some   facts   about   sheep,   and  to 

judge  the  types. 
Material. — A  sheep  before  the  class. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

Sheep  raising  is  especially  profitable  in  West  Vir- 
ginia, and  in  the  schools  of  this  State,  it  would  be 
well  to  emphasize  the  study  of  this  farm  animal.  Dis- 
cuss with  the  class  the  following  points  about  sheep: 

I..  Sheep  are  found  in  almost  every  latitude,  and 
they  can  find  sustenance  and  thrive  where  other  ani- 
mals can  scarcely  live. 

2.  Sheep  provide  man  with  meat  and  clothing, 
and  are  among  the  most  profitable  of  animals. 

3.  Sheep  increase  rapidly,  mature  early,  furnish 
wholesome  food,  and  improve  the  land  on  which  they 
are  pastured. 

4.  Sheep  are  docile,  rather  easily  handled,  live  on 
a  great  diversity  of  food,  and  require  less  grain  than 
any  other  kind  of  live  stock. 

5.  Much  food  is  wasted  on  the  ordinary  farm 
that  would  maintain  a  small  flock  of  sheep. 

6.  Sheep  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  wool 


ELEMENTARY    AGRICULTURE 


15^ 


3  5 

B  H 
P 

^^ 

»  o 

2.  t^ 
d 

O  CO 


160  ONE   HUKDBKD   UCSSONS    IN 

breeds  and  mutton  breeds.  Of  the  wool  breeds,  Amer- 
ican Merino,  Delaine  Merino,  and  Rambouillet  are 
the  standard  types. 

Of  the  mutton  breeds,  Southdown,  Shropshire, 
Horned  Dorset,  and  Cheviot  are  the  standard  types. 

Open  the  fleece  of  the  sheep  and  observe  the  clean 
skin  in  which  the  fibres  grow.  These  fibres  are  so 
rough  that  they  keep  the  dirt  to  the  outside. 

Wool  is  valuable  in  proportion  to  the  length  and 
evenness  of  the  fibre  and  the  density  of  the  fleece. 

Answer  the  following  questions  taken  from  Bur- 
kett,  Stevens  and  Hill: 

1.  How  many  pounds  ought  a  fleece  of  wool  of 
good  wool  breed  to  weigh?     •    "^^l  . :,  • . 

2.  Explain  the  presence  of  oil  in  the  fleece. 

3.  Which  makes  the  better  clothing,  coarse  or 
fine  wool? 

4.  Why  are  sheep  washed  before  shearing? 

5.  Does  cold  weather  trouble  sheep?  Wet 
weather  ? 

Use  the  following  score  card  from  Purdue  Univer- 
sity, Indiana,  and  mark  the  score  for  each  sheep  before 
the  class: 

References : — 

Id. — Pages,  197-200. 

G.  &  M.— Pages,  183-188. 


BILEMENTABY  AGSlCUtTUBE 


161 


STUDENTS'    SCORE    CARD — SHEEP. 


SCALE   OF  POINTS. 


Mutton  Sheep. 

1 

a 
a 

Fine  Wool 
Sheep. 

Score. 

Score. 

a 

1 

03 

Students. 
Corrected. 

Students. 
Corrected. 

A.  Age   . . Teeth   

B.  General  Appearance 

Weight — Estimated   lbs. 

Actual    lbs.   according  to  age 

Form,    low,    compact,    symmetrical .  . 

Quality,  bone  and   wool  fine 

Constitution,   as   seen    in  girth,   skin, 
and    fleece    

C.  Head  and  Neck. 

Muzzle,  fine ;  mouth  and  nostrils  of 

good   size ;    lips   thin    

Eyes,  bright,   full,    whites  clear 

Face,    short 

Forehead,    broad    

Ears,   fine,   erect    

Neck,    thick,    short    

D.  Forequarters. 

Shoulders,   smooth,   well  covered    . . . 

Chest,    wide,    deep     

Brisket,    thick   and    carried   well 

forward    

Legs,  straight,  short,  strong,  well 
set,    arm  full,   shank   smooth 

E.  Body. 

Back  and  Loin  straight  and  wide . .  . 

Ribs    well    sprung,    deep 

Flanks  low,   making  straight 

underline    

F.  Hindquarters. 

Hips    well    apart,    smooth 

Rump  long,   level,  wide    

Thighs    full    

Twist  plump,   deep    

Legs  straight,  short,    strong; 

shank    smooth     

G.  Wool. 

fine,   soft,  clean,   even 

great    

good 


Quality 
Density 
Length 
Yolk    .. 


Total     100 


100 


Animal . 

Owner. 

Data... 


Breed 

Student 

Grade  of  Student. 


162 


ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


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ELEMENTARY   AGRICULTURE  163 


LESSON  LXI 

Title.— The  Hog. 

Season. — A  Winter  lesson. 

Object. — To  study  Swine  and  learn  to  judge  them. 

Material. — A  hog  before  the  class. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND    METHOD 

For  this  lesson  take  the  class  to  see  some  good 
breed  of  hogs  or  have  a  good  specimen  brought  to 
the  school  yard. 

The  first  point  to  mention  is  the  hog's  structural 
adaptation  to  the  life  he  leads.  The  skeleton  is  heavy 
and  low,  allowing  great  accumulation  of  weight  in 
flesh  and  fat.  The  snout  is  strong  and  tough  for 
rooting,  and  the  eyes  are  set  below  the  ears,  indi- 
cating its  ground-feeding  habits. 

The  chief  value  of  the  hog  is  its  production  of 
meat  and  lard  and  if  properly  cared  for,  it  will  bring  the 
farmer  more  money  than  any  other  animal  on  the  farm. 

The  most  desirable  type  of  hog  for  lard  or  fat  has 
short  legs,  heavy  shoulders,  small  dished  head,  straight 
back  and  straight  under-lines,  and  heavy  hams.  "The 
razor  back"  hogs  are  very  unprofitable,  and  will  not  gain 
so  rapidly  under  feeding. 

The  following  story  is  quoted  from  Burkett,  Ste- 
vens and  Hill : 


164  ONE    HUNDBED    LESSONS    IN 

"A  boy  whose  parents  were  too  poor  to  send  him 
to  college,  once  decided  to  make  his  own  money  and 
get  an  education.  He  bought  a  sow,  and  began  to 
raise  pigs.  He  earned  the  food  for  both  mother  and 
pigs.  His  hogs  increased  so  fast  that  he  had  to  work 
hard  to  keep  them  in  food.  By  saving  the  money  he  re- 
ceived from  the  sale  of  the  hogs,  he  had  enough  to 
keep  him  in  college." 

The  following  are  some  standard  breeds  of  hogs: 


I. 

Chester  White 

6. 

Duroc-Jersey 

2. 

Yorkshire 

7- 

Cheshire 

3 

Tamworth 

8. 

Victoria. 

4- 

Berkshire 

9- 

Hampshire. 

5- 

Poland-China 

Hogs  will  do  better  when  kept  as  little  as  possible 
in  pens.  When  hogs  are  kept  in  pens,  cleanliness  is 
most  important  to  reduce  the  danger  of  disease. 

Have  the  class  score  the  hog,  using  the  following 
score-card  of  Purdue  University,  and  marking  the 
points  as  they  judge : 


ELEMENTARY   AGBICULTUEE 


165 


166 


ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LARD    HOGS. 


MARKET. 


SCALE  OF  POINTS. 


GENERAL   APPEARANCE — 30   Points: 

1.  Weight,   score  according  to  age 

2.  Form    deep,    broad,    low,    long,    symmetrical, 

compact,    standing    squarely    on    legs .... 

3.  Quality,    hair    silky ;    skin    fine ;    bone    fine ; 

mellow   covering     of     flesh,      free      from 
lumps    and    wrinkles    

4.  Condition,   deep,   even  covering  of  flesh,   es- 

pecially in   region  of  valuable  cuts 

5.  Temperament   mild,    quiet    

HEAD  AND   NECK — 8  Points  : 

6.  Snout,    medium   length,    not   coarse 

7.  Eyes   full,    mild,    bright 

8.  Face    short,    cheeks    full 

9.  Ears   fine,    medium   size,    attached   neatly... 

10.  Jowl    strong,    nest   broad,    firm 

11.  Neck   thick,    medium    length,    smooth    to 

shoulder    

FOREQUARTERS — 12   Points: 

12.  Shoulder  broad,   deep,  full,  compact  on  top. 

13.  Breast    advanced,    wide    

14.  Legs   straight,   short,    strong,    bones   clean ; 

pasterns  upright ;  feet  medium  size    .... 
BODY — 32   Points: 

15.  Chest   deep,    broad,    large   girth 

16.  Sides    deep,    lengthy,    full ;    ribs    close    and 

well    sprung    

17.  Back    broad,    straight,    thickly    and    evenly 

fleshed     

18.  Loin   wide,    thick,    straight    

19.  Belly    straight,    even     

HINDQUARTERS — 18    Points  : 

20.  Hips  wide  apart,  smooth    

21.  Rump    long,    level,   wide,    evenly    fleshed, 

straight    

22.  Ham  heavily  fleshed,  plump,   full,  deep,  widet 

23.  Legs    straight,    short,    strong ;    bone    clean 

pasterns    upright ;    feet    medium    size .  . 

Total    


3 

10 


100 


Animals 
Student 


Date 


ELEMENTARY    AGRICULTURE 


167 


IM  ONE    B.V1HDEKD    LESSONS    IN 

Questions: — i.     At  what  age  marketed? 

2.  Average  weight  then  ? 

3.  Present  price  ? 

4.  Symptoms  of  hog  cholera? 

5.  Good  preventions?  ':■  y~ 

6.  At  the  present  price  of  com  and  hogs,  would 
it  pay  best  to  feed  it  to  hogs  or  sell  it  by  the  bushel^ 

7.  How  many  and  what  breeds  in  your  comniunity  ? 

8.  Do  hogs  like  pasture? 

9.  What  do  hog  raisers  generally  feed  the  hogs? 
How  expensive  is  this  feed  as  compared  with  feed  for 
cattle  or  horses  ? 

References : — 

Id. — Pages,  200-203. 

G.  &  M. — Pages,  189-192.  ' 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTUBK  169 


LESSON  LXII 


Title.— Poultry. 

Season. — May  be  a  Winter  study. 

Object. — To   learn  some   facts    about   farm   poultry. 

and  to  learn  to  judge  standard  types. 
Material. — Poultry  for  observation. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND  METHOD 

Arrange  to  have  a  specimen  of  a  good  breed  of  poul- 
try before  the  class  for  this  lesson.  It  would  be  bet- 
ter to  visit  a  poultry  farm. 

Present  the  following  facts  about  the  fowls  and 
discuss  them  with  the  class: 

1.  The  domestic  fowl  is  used  for  Qgg  production, 
meat  production,  feather  production,  pest  destruction, 
and  to  satisfy  fancy. 

2.  The  last  census  showed  that  the  farmers  got 
about  150  million  dollars  annually  from  the  sale  of 
the  eggs  alone. 

3.  To  increase  egg  production  the  hens  should 
have  an  abundance  of  water,  nutritious  food,  dry, 
warm,  well  lighted  houses,  and  plenty  of  exercise. 

4.  Geese,  ducks,  and  turkeys  are  not  so  generally 
raised  as  chickens,  but  there  is  an  increasing  demand  for 
these  fowls. 

5.  The  use  of  the  incubator  is  extending  each 
year  to  supply  the  large  demand  for  chickens. 

6.  One  important  fact  to  learn  is  the  proper 
feeding  for  egg  production.     This  is  best  secured  by 


170 


ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


feeding  mixed  grains,  green  grass,  cut  and  steamed  hay, 
(clover),  alfalfa  hay,  roots,  grit,  and  some  kind  of 
meat.  In  the  winter  ground  bone,  meat-meal,  beef 
scraps,  etc.,  should  be  provided,  since  the  hens  can 
get  no  insects  to  make  up  the  needed  meat  diet  for 
egg  production.  It  has  been  found  that  the  nutritive 
ratio'^'  of  the  food  for  fowls  should  be  about  i  :  4.  That 
means  that  they  should  have  a  large  amount  of  protein 
foods  in  proportion  to  the  carbon  foods,  i.  e.,  more 
seeds,  grass,  and  meats  than  corn. 

7.  vSonie  standard  varieties  of  chickens  are  as  fol- 
lows : 

Egg-breeds — Leghorn,  Minorca.  Meat-breeds — 
])rahnia.  Cochin.  General  purpose — Plymouth  Rock, 
Wyandotte.     Fancy  breeds — Bantam,  Polish. 

Use  the  following  score-card  and  have  each  pupil 
mark  the  points  for  the  fowl  before  the  class: 


WEIGHT. 
Typical    Carriage     

1    Shape. 

Color. 

CondiUon 

Weight     



Comb    . .          

Beak    

Eyes     

. 

Head    

Crest   and    Beard    

[ 

Wattle   and  Lobe    

Neck    

Wing    

. 

Back    

Tail     

.    . 

Breast 

; 

Body    and    Fluff     

Legs   and   Feet    

Hardness  of  Ft  athers 

Defects    

Score    , . . 

..".".777r 

References  : — Id. — Pages   204-207. 
(r.   &   \\. — Pages,   193-200 
{'■■  Sec  p.   186.) 


ELEMENTARY    AGRrCULrilKE 


171 


COLONY   HOUSE 


172  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  LXIII 

Title.^A  Study  of  Feathers.* 

Season. — May  be  a  Winter  lesson. 

Object. — To  study  the  use  of  feathers  to  the  fowl,  and 
to  learn  the  different  kinds  of  feathers  on  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  body. 

Material. — A  fowl  of  any  kind  brought  to  school  in  a 
coop.  The  same  fowl  used  in  the  previous  les- 
son could  be  used  for  this  lesson.  While  it  is 
kept  at  school  it  should  be  supplied  with  food  and 
water. 

SUBJECT-MATTEE  AND   METHOD 

Have  the  fowl  in  school-room  a  few  hours  be- 
fore the  lesson  is  given.  Encourage  the  children  to 
find  out  as  many  facts  as  they  can  for  themselses  be- 
fore the  school  opens  for  work.  Direct  the  observa- 
tions of  the  pupils  by  a  few  questions,'  as:  the  kind 
of  feathers ;  the  location  of  the  different  kinds ;  any 
part  of  the  body  not  covered  with  feathers.  Suggest 
a  little  competition  by  asking  which  boy  or  girl  can 
give  the  greatest  number  of  facts  from  his  observation 
of  the  feathers  of  the  fowl. 

At  class  time,  the  teacher  should  remove  the  fowl 
from  the  coop  and  hold  it  firmly  by  the  legs  to  pre- 

*( Adapted  from  The  Cornell  Leaflets.) 


ELEMENTABY   AGBICULTUBE 


173 


vent  fright  and  injury.     Allow  the  children  to  come 
near. 

1.  Have  the  pupils  feel  the  difference  between 
the  heat  of  the  fowl's  body  beneath  the  feathers  and  on 
the  outside  of  the  feathers.  Explain.  Bring  out  the 
point  that  the  feathers  are  non-conducting,  and  ask 
what  purpose  this  serves  the  fowl. 

2.  Spread  the  wings  and  tail  so  that  the  different 
feather  sections  may  be  seen.  Note  that  in  the  wing 
and  tail,  one  feather  overlaps  the  other  so  that  each 
feather  braces  the  other  in  flight. 

3.  Observe  the  lighter  wing  feathers  (the  sec- 
ondaries) tucked  under  the  heavier  feathers  (the  pri- 
maries). What  kind  of  feathers  are  in  the  tail?  Are 
they  different  from  those  of  the  wings?  What  use 
do  the  tail  feathers  serve? 


BROODER  HOUSE 


174 


ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


THE   FEATHERS   OF  A   CHICKEN 
Showing    their    relative    size,    shape    and    position.       1,    Neck    hackle ; 
2,  Breast ;  3,  Wing  shoulder  covert ;  4,  Wing  flight'  covert ;  5,  Wing 
primary;   6,   Wing  secondary;   7,  Wing  covert ;   8,   Back;   9,  Cush- 
ion;  10,  Main  tail;   11,  Fluff;  12,  Thigh. 


ELEMENT ABY   AGBICULTURE 


175 


4.  Notice  how  the  back  feathers  overlap  each 
other.  Why  this  arrangement?  If  the  feathers  shed 
easih'  without  pain  to  the  fowl,  take  one  feather  from 
each  of  the  following  places  and  fasten  on  a  sheet  of 
paper  for  comparison:  i.  Neck  feather;  2.  Breast 
feather;  3.  Wing  shoulder  covert;  4.  Wing  flight 
covert;  5.  Wing  primary:  6  Wing  secondary;  7. 
Wing  covert;  8.  Back;  9.  Cushion;  10.  Main  tail; 
II.  Fluff;  and  12.  Thigh.  See  figure  for  corres- 
ponding  numbers. 

4.  Have  pupils  make  drawing  sketches  of  these 
feathers. 

5.  Make  a  drawing  of  a  large  primary  feather, 
and  name  the  parts :  fluff,  tip,  quill,  barb,  and  web. 


CURTAIN  FRONT  LAYING  HOUSE 


176 


ONE    HUnuBED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  LXIV 

Title.— A  Study  of  the  Egg.* 

Season. — May  be  a  Winter  study. 

Object. — To  observe  the  variations  in  eggs,  the  charac- 
teristic types,  and  to  learn  something  of  the  struc- 
ture and  composition  of  the  egg. 

Material. — A  collection  of  eggs  from  as  many  different 
kinds  of  poultry  as  possible,  a  neat  box  with  good 
cover,  blow  pipes  or  straw,  and  a  pair  of  balances 
or  scales,  and  saucers. 


SUBJECT-MATTER   AND    METHOD 

Ask  each  pupil  in  the  school  to  bring  one  or  two 
hen-eggs,  turkey-eggs,  or  any  other  fowl  eggs,  for  this 
lesson. 

I.  Tabulate  in  the  note-book  the  record  of  the 
collection  as  follows: 

(Number  each  egg  with  ink  on  the  shell.) 


bO 

^ 

s 

s 

» 

0> 

1 

a 

pil's 
me. 

» 

o 

Eh 

in 

^ 

S 

ss 

OS 

o 
Z 

1 

1 

1 

(Adapted  from  The  Cornell  Leaflets.) 


ELEMENTARY   AGRICULTURE  177 

2.  After  this  data  has  been  recorded,  a  small 
hole  might  be  broken  in  each  end  of  the  egg,  the  blow 
pipe  or  straw  inserted,  and  the  contents  blown  out,  so 
that  the  egg  shell  may  be  preserved  in  a  neat  box  as  part 
of  an  interesting  collection.  From  time  to  time,  pupils 
might  be  encouraged  to  get  the  shells  from  the  eggs 
that  are  used  at  home  to  add  to  the  collection.  The 
contents  of  the  eggs,  blown,  should  be  held  in  saucers, 
one  to  each  pupil. 

3.  Observe  the  structure  of  the  raw  eggs  in  the 
saucers.  Find  the  "germinal  disc''  which  appears  as 
a  light  colored  spot,  usually  on  the  upper  surface  of 
the  yolk.  This  germ  spot  contains  the  life  principle  of 
the  egg.  Note  the  whitish  cords  of  denser  albumen 
which  serve  to  keep  the  yolk  properly  suspended  in  the 
white  of  the  egg. 

Note  the  clear,  watery  appearance  of  the  white 
of  the  egg.  This  is  the  albumen,  the  food  in  liquid 
form  upon  which  the  young  chick  lives  while  In  the 
shell.  (If  the  contents  do  not  come  out  whole,  an- 
other egg  must  be  broken  for  this  part  of  the  lesson.) 

4.  The  chemical  composition  of  the  dry  substance 
of  the  inside  of  the  egg  is  (Snyder :  Poultry  Book.)  :  • 

Protein.  Fat. 

White     (albumen)      88.92  .53 

Yolk     20.62  64.43 

5.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  egg  shell  obtained 
above. 

6.  If  it  is  not  possible  to  boil  the  eggs  at  the 
school,  ask  each  pupil  to  bring  a  boiled  egg  for  this 
part  of  the  study. 


178  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 

Carefully  remove  the  shell  piece  by  piece.  Ob- 
serve the  air  space  and  the  two  membrarnis  beneath 
the  shell.  Cut  the  egg  lengthwise  through  the  mid- 
'dle  and  make  a  drawing  of  the  section  showing  all 
the  points  mentioned  in  paragraph  3. 

Note: — In  connection  with  the  lessons  on  poultry, 
it  would  be  a  good  thing  for  the  teacher  and  class  to 
make  some  chicken  coops  and  provide  the  school  with  a 
flock  of  fowls  of  good  breed.  Poultry  could  be  easily 
kept  at  the  rural  school,  and  thereby  furnish  practical 
work  for  the  class  in  agriculture. 


ELEMENTARY   AGBICULTURE  179 


LESSON  LXV 

Title.— Food  Studies. 

Season. — A  Winter  lesson. 

Object. — To  learn  the  most  important  food  compounds 

and  the  relative  food  values  of  common  foods. 
Material. — An  egg,  a  potato,  some  nuts,  fat  meat,  salt, 

and  water.    Cheese  and  crackers,  bread,  butter  and 

sugar. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

I.  When  one  thinks  of  the  study  of  foods  he 
thinks  at  once  of  domestic  science  rather  than  of  ele- 
mentary agriculture.  But  intelligent  endeavor  in  ag- 
ricultural practices  concerns  itself  with  the  use  of  food 
products,  both  for  the  farm  animals  and  for  the  home 
table.  It  is  an  economic  as  well  as  a  health  factor 
that  we  cannot  afford  to  overlook.  Until  the  recent 
pure  food  law  became  effective,  we  were  at  the  mercy 
of  the  manufacturers  and  the  grocers  in  their  practice 
of  adulterating,  substituting,  coloring,  and  preserving 
much  of  our  food-stuffs. 

.  It  would  be  an  excellent  part  in  the  presentation 
of  this  lesson,  for  the  teacher  to  get  a  few  samples  of 
properly  labeled  canned  food-stuff,  such  as  beans,  ba- 
con, berries,  syrups,  peas,  etc.,  and  show  the  pupils 
how  to  recognize  the  inspection  stamp  under  the  pure 


180 


ONE    HUNDKED    LESSONS    IN 


food  law  of  June  1906.     Emphasize  the  fact  that  only- 
such  approved  goods  should  be  purchased. 

Thoroughly  learn  these  facts^that  food  for  man 
and  the  higher  vertebrate  animals    may  be  classified 
into  proteids,  carbo-hydrates,  fats,  mineral  matter,  and 
water.      It  is  from  these  compounds  that  animals  get 
life,  heat,  and  energy. 

The  examples  of  food  given  above  contain  all  the 
elements  of  nutrition.  It  v^ould  be  well  to  have  these 
samples  before  the  class  and  to  explain  which  food 
element  predominates  in  each  one. 

2.  Have  pupils  copy  into  their  note-books  and 
learn  the  following  table : 


Proteid-food. 

Carbo-hydrate 
food. 

Fat-food. 

Minerals. 

Water. 

Starches. 

Lean  meat. 

Sugars. 

Seeds. 

Salt. 

Water. 

White  of  egg. 

Potatoes. 

Nuts. 

Mineral 

Milk. 

Curd  of  milk. 

Grains. 

Fish. 

water. 

Vegetables. 

Gluten  of  wheat. 

Vegetables. 

Butter. 

Cheese. 

Crackers. 

Fat  mea'ts. 

Beans. 

Honey. 
Green  corn. 
Bread. 

Oils. 

Many  of  the  foods  mentioned  above  contain  two 
or  more  of  the  food  compounds  given  at  the  head  of 
the  table,  but  they  are  classed  under  the  compound 
which  they  have  in  greater  prominence.  The  human 
body  has  these  five  compounds  in  its  make  up,  hence 
the  food  must  contain  them  if  the  body  is  to  live  and 
grow. 

3.  The  following  table,  prepared  from  Bulletin 
28,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  Dept.  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,  D.  C,  shows  the  composition  of  common 


fiLEMENTABY   AGBICULTURE 


181 


food  materials.  It  should  be  copied  into  the  pupils' 
note-books,  studied  and  discussed  by  the  teacher  and 
class.     This  bulletin  may  be  secured  for  five  cents. 


FOODS. 

is' 

0)     • 

54. 
53.7 
90. 
40.4 
88.3 
65.5 
87. 
34.2 
35.3 
5.9 

16.5 
26.4 

1.8 
10.2 

6. 
13.1 

3.3 
25.9 

9.2 

9.8 

o 
o 

16.1 
6.9 
1.1 
4.2 
1.3 
9.3 
4. 

33.7 
1.3 
9.1 

'  "s.'e" 

••3:3' 

"5!" 

2.4 

53.1 

73.1 

81. 
22. 

4.8 
14.7 
19. 

4. 

0 

12.8 
4.7 

.9 

Beef     dried     

8.9 

1.5 

Mackerel    

44.7 

.9 

1.1 

Eggs     

Whole    milk 

11.2 

.9 

.7 

Cheese    (cream)     

White    bread 



3.8 
1.1 

Sods,    crackers                     .  . 

2.1 

Beans    (Lima)                 .  .  .  . 

68.5 

77.7 

62.6 

76.1 

94. 

38.5 

7.1 
1.4 
1.8 
2.8 
1.2 
13.4 

.7 
.2 
.1 
1.2 
.2 
29.8 

.7 

Cabbage     

Potatoes     

Corn     (green)                  .  .  .  . 

15. 
20. 

.9 
.8 
.9 

Tomatoes                 

.6 

(Joose    

i7.6 

.7 

182  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  LXVI 

Title. — Food    Proportions   and   Requirements. 

Season. — Winter  lesson. 

Object. — To  learn  proper  food  prXDportions  and  some 

good  dietaries. 
Material. — Some  butter,  bread,  sugar,  cheese,  crackers, 

and  dried  beef. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

1.  This  lesson  should  follow  immediately  upon 
the  preceding  one,  and  before  drawing  any  conclusion 
from  the  facts  presented  in  the  last  icsson,  we  should 
bring  out  this  point,  that  cooking  changes  the  physical 
and  often  the  chemical  nature  of  the  foods,  that  it  im- 
proves the  flavor  and  at  high  temperature  kills  germs. 
It  ruptures  the  walls  of  the  starch  cells,  softens  the  pro- 
tein of  the  tissues,  and  tends  to  harden  the  albuminoids. 
There  are  serious  defects  in  the  process  of  cooking 
:  rd  preparing  foods.  For  example,  potatoes  peeled 
and  soaked  for  some  time  before  cooking,  loose  52% 
of  nitrogenous  matter;  when  peeled  and  put  into  cold 
water  and  boiled,  they  loose  16%  of  it;  the  ideal  way 
of  cooking  potatoes  is  to  boil  them  with  the  skin  on. 

2.  Food  requirements. 

It  has  been  found  that  an  adult  at  moderate  mus- 
cular work,  requires  food  daily  in  the  following  pro- 
portions : 


ELEMENTABY   AGEICULTUBE  183 

*Protein — one-fourth  pound  ;  Fat — one-half  pound  . 
Carbo-hydrates — one  and  one-fourth  pound. 

It  would  be  an  interesting  part  to  this  lesson  to 
weigh  out  the  following  foods  before  the  class  that  the 
pupils  ma}^  see  the  amount  and  proportion'^  constitut- 
ing good  dietaries : 

(a)     butter,  8  oz.  (b)     cheese,  12  oz. 

bread,  24  oz.  crackers,  24  oz. 

sugar,  6  oz. 

These  simple  dietaries  are  approximate  estimates 
of  a  fairly  balanced  daily  food  ratio  for  an  adult  do- 
ing medium  labor.  This  does  not  include  the  jivater 
which  should  constitute  a  large  portion  of  the  food  of 
a  day.  The  above  dietaries  are  not  perhaps  so  palatable 
as  desir-ed,  but  they  represent  good  proportions. 

3.  In  the  business  of  farming  the  same  principles 
apply  to  the  feeding  and  managing  of  stock.  The  pro- 
portion of  available  protein  to  the  other  available  nu- 
trients, is  called  the  nutritive  ratio. 

A  cow  should  be  fed  a  ration  of  i  part  proteins  to 
5.4  parts  carbo-hydrates,  a  horse,  i  to  7,  under  average 
condition.  Ten  percent,  of  the  food  value  is  lost  when 
a  horse  is  required  to  stand  in  a  cold  stall  or  to  fight 
flies.  The  science  of  stock  feeding  is  a  large  and  very 
important  field  for  study. 

The  nutritive  ratio  for  a  growing  boy  or  girl  is 
I  to  5.2. 

It  would  be  a  good  practice  to  make  up  several 
food  dietaries  with  the  proper  ration  from  the  forego- 
ing tables. 

♦NOTE. — lyHter  Yale  experimems  prove  that  an    adult  needs  only  2  oz. 
of  portein  daily. 


184  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  LXVII 

Title. — Tests  for  Food  Compounds. 

Season. — Winter  lesson. 

Object. — To  learn  how  to  make  tests  for  the  common 

food  compounds. 
Material. — Caustic    potash,     copper    sulphate     (blue 

stone),  egg,  corn  or  wheat,  starch,  iodine,  potato, 

and  nuts. 


SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

Pupils  should  become  familiar  with  the  terms, 
protein,  starch,  fat,  etc.,  and  they  should  know  man}' 
facts  about  these  nutrients.  They  may  make  tests  for 
them  in  certain  foods. 

I.  To  test  for  protein.  Prepare  a  solution  of 
caustic  potash,  1-5  oz.  to  2  oz.  of  water  (warm).  Dis- 
solve a  piece  of  copper  sulphate,  about  >^  inch  in  di- 
ameter in  two  ounces  of  warm  water.  Place  a  small, 
quantity  of  white  of  egg  on  a  plate  and  cover  it  with 
the  caustic  potash  solution.  Warm  gently.  Pour  a 
small  quantity  of  the  copper  sulphate  solution  over 
this  and  stir  with  a  clean  stick.  The  color  will  re- 
main the  greenish  bine  of  the  copper  for  ten  or  fif- 
teen minutes,  when  a  bright  violet  will  spread  through 
the  solution.  This  shows  the  presence  of  protein  which 
was  in  the  egg.    Wheat,  corn,  and  all  the  grains  may 


ELEMSNTAXY  AQBICIILTURK  185 

be  crushed  and  treated  in  the  same  way  to  show  the 
presence  of  protein. 

2.  To  test  for  carbo-hydrate  (starch).  Crush  a 
piece  of  potato  and  partly  dissolve  in  hot  water.  In- 
troduce a  splinter  into  the  iodine  bottle,  and  transfer 
the  iodine  adhering  to  the  splinter  into  the  potato  so- 
lution and  stir.  The  blue  color  that  forms  is  the  test 
for  starch.  Seeds  of  various  kinds  may  be  crushed  and 
boiled  in  water  and  the  water  tested  for  starch  in  the 
same  way. 

3.  To  test  for  fats.  Nuts  and  small  seeds  may  be 
crushed  and  heated  on  white  paper.  The  grease  spot 
that  appears  will  indicate  the  presence  of  oils. 

Tabulate  and  learn  the  above  facts. 


ISC  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  LXVIII 

Title. — Determining   Rations   for    Farm    Animals. 

Season. — A  Winter  lesson. 

Object. — To  learn  how  to  balance  rations  so  as  to  keep 

the  animal  in  good  condition,  and  to  use  economy 

in  feeding. 
Material. — Note-book  and  pencil.   • 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

Animal  food-stuffs  contain  the  same  elements 
used  in  human  foods,  that  is,  protein,  carbo-hydrates, 
and  fat.  The  percentages  of  these  ingredients  found 
in  the  standard  animal  foods  are  given  in  the  table 
appended  to  this  lesson.  By  the  nutritive  ratio  is 
meant  the  proportion  of  protein  to  carbo-hydrates  and 
fats  combined. 

The  following  formula  illustrates  the  method  of 
finding  the  nutritive  ratio: 
Carbo-hydrates+(fatX2.25) 

=nutritive  ratio. 

protein 
For  example,  suppose  we  wish  to  find  the  nu- 
tritive ratio  of  the  following  ration :  (Horse  weighing 
i,cxx)  pounds,  doing  medium  work.) 

Timothy  hay 15  pounds 

Com 10  pounds 

Cotton-seed  meal  3  pounds 


ELEMENTARY   AGRICULTURE 


187 


Solution : — ■ 

In   IOC  pounds  of  timothy  hay  there  is  86.8  lbs. 
dry  matter,  2.8  protein,  43.4  carbo-hydrates,  and   1.4 
fat. 
In  15  pounds  hay  there  are: 

15-100  of  86.8  dry  matter,  13.02  pounds. 

15-100  of  2.8  protein,  .42  pounds. 

15-100  of  43.4  carbo-hydrates,  6.51  pounds. 

15-100  of  1.4  fat,  .21  pounds. 
In  10  pounds  corn  there  are: 

10-100  of  89.1  dry  matter,  8.91  pounds. 

10-100  of     7.9  protein,  .79  pounds. 

10-100  of  ^6.^]  carbo-hydrate,  6.6^  pounds. 

10-100     4.3  fat,   .43  pounds. 
In  3  pounds  cottgn-seed  meal  there  are: 

3-100  of  91.5  dry  matttr,  2.74  pounds. 

3-100  38.1  protein,   1.14  pounds. 

3-100  of  16.0  carbo-hydrate,  .48  pounds. 

3-100  of  12.6  fat,  .378  pounds. 


C-Mb'- 
Dry  matter      Pr-iteiii  '..yli-rto 


'at. 


Timothy,    15    lbs    

Corn,    10    lbs    

Cottonseed    meal,    3   lbs 

13.02 
8.91 
2.74 

.42 

.79 

1.14 

6.fi7 
.48 

'.?>-'?> 

Total    

24.67                 2.35 

13.66 

1.018 

Substituting  in  the.  formula  given  above, 

13.66+ (1.018X2.25) 
=6-|-.    Nutritive  ratio  is  i  to  6. 

2.35 
This  we  see  is  a  proper  ratio  for  the  horse  re- 


188 


ONE    HUNDEED    LESSONS    IN 


ferred  to  above.  One-fourth  for  breakfast,  one-fourth 
for  dinner  and  one-half  for  supper  would  be  the  proper 
division  of  this  ration. 

Problem — Find  the  nutritive  ratio  for  15  lbs.  of 
clover  hay  and  5  pounds  of  oat  straw  and  10  pounds  of 
oats. 

STOCK    FOODS — AVERAGE    OF    DIGESTIBLE    NUTRIENTS. 


NAME   OF  FOOD. 


080*2 


Digestible  nutrients  in  100 
pounds. 


Green   food  and  ensilage. . 

Corn    fodder     

Rye    fodder     

Kentucky    blue    grass .  .  . 

Red    clover    

Cow-pea    vines     

Corn    ensilage    

Hay  and  dry  fodders — 

Corn  stover    

Timothy    hay    

Red  clover    

Cow-pea  vine  bay    . . . . 

Oat  straw    

Wheat  straw    

Grain  and  other  seed — 

Corn    

Oats    

Cow-peas    

Mill    products — 

Corn   meal    

Wheat    bran     

Cottonseed   meal    


20.7 

1.0 

0.4 

23.4 

2.1 

0.4 

34.9 

3.0 

0.8 

29.2 

2.9 

0.7 

16.4 

1.8 

0.2 

20.9 

0.9 

0.7 

69.5 

1.7 

0.7 

86.8 

2.8 

1.4 

84.7 

7.6 

2.0 

89.3 

10.8 

1.1 

90.8 

1.2 

0.8 

90.4 

0.4 

0.4 

89.1 

8.0 

4.6 

89.0 

9.2 

4.2 

87.8 

20.0 

0.8 

85.0 

5.5 

3.5 

88.1 

12.2 

2.7 

91.6 

38.1 

12.6 

11.6 
14.1 
19.8 
14.8 
8.7 
11.8 

32.4 
48.4 
38.4 
39.0 
38.6 
36.3 

65.9 
47.3 
53.2 

63.8 
39.2 
16.0 


References : — 

Tel — Pa^es,  211-215. 

C.  &   ]\f.— Pages   16Q-176. 


ELEMENTARY   AGBICULTUBE  189 


LESSON  LXIX 

Title. — Feeding  Standards  for  Farm  Animals. 
Season. — A  Winter  lesson. 

Object. — To  give  data  for  calculating  feeding  rationt?. 
Material,— Paper  and  pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND    METHOD 

The  teacher  should  give  several  problems  similar 
to  the  one  suggested  in  the  last  lesson,  and  also  have 
the  pupils  make  up  their  own  problems  for  feeding 
rations  of  the  different  animals  mentioned  in  the  table 
below. 

PER   DAY   FOR   1,000    POUNDS   LIVE    WEIGHT. 

The  Animal.  Dry  Matter.  Nutritive  Ratio. 

Lbs. 

Fat   cattle    SO  1:6.5 

Milch    cows    27  1:6. 

Horse   (light  work)    20  1 :7 . 

Horse   (heavy  work)    26  1:6. 

Sheep,  growing  wool    23  1 :8 .6 

Fattening  sheep    30  1 :5 . 4 

Fattening    swine     32  1:6. 

For  assignment  of  work  in  this  lesson  each  pupil 
should  compound  a  maintenance  ration  having  the 
amounts  and  nutritive  ratios  given  above  for  at  least 
three  of  the  animals. 

Note — It  should  be  remembered  that  protein  builds 
flesh,  bone,  blood  and  internal  organs,  and  may  be 
used  to  serve  as  the  fat.  Fat  furnishes  heat,  en- 
ergy and  body  fat,  so  also  does  the  carbo-hydrates. 


190  ONE    HUNDBED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  LXX 

Title. — An   Outline   of   the   Animal   Kingdom. 
Season. — At  any  time..  A  good  lesson  to  precede  the 

study  of  insects. 
Object. — To  learn  the  divisions  of  the  animal  kingdom. 
Material. — Note-book  and  pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

All  the  animal  life  in  the  world  may  be  classed  in 
eight  groups,  represented  by  forms  familiar  to  almost 
every  one.  It  would  be  worth  the  effort  for  the  sake 
of  future  studies  in  animal  life  to  commit  to  memory 
the  following  outline  of  the  animal  kingdom: 

1.  Protozoa.  Microscopic  forms  in  stagnant  wa- 
ter. 

2.  Porifera.    The  sponges. 

3.  Coelenterata.    The  coral. 

4.  Echinodermata.     The  star-fish.  > 

5.  Vermes.     The  fish-worm. 

6.  Mollusca.     Snails  and  Mussels. 

7.  Arthropoda.     Spiders  and  insects. 

8.  Vertebrata.     The  horse. 

Each  of  these  sub-kingdoms  is  divided  into  classes, 
orders,  genera,  and  species.  Two  sub-kingdoms  very 
important  to  agriculture  are  the  Anthropoda  and  the 
Vertebrata.    These  are  subdivided  as  follows: 


ELEMENTABY  AGBICULTUBE  191 

Sub-kingdom, — Arthropoda — 
Class  I.     Crustaceans,  the  crayfish. 
Class  2.     Arachnida,  the  spider. 
Class  3.     Myriapoda,  the  centiped. 
Class  4.     Insecta,  the  insect. 

Order  i.     Orthoptera,  the  grasshoppers. 
Order  2.     Lepidoptera,  the  butterflies. 
Order  3.     Diptera,  the  flies. 
Order  4.     Hemiptera,  the  bugs. 
Order  5.     Neuroptera,  the  dragonflies. 
Order  6.     Hymenoptera,  the  bees. 
Order  7.     Coleoptera,  the  beetles. 
Sub-kingdom, — Vertebrata — 
Class  I.     Pisces,  the  fish. 
Class  2.     Aves,  the  birds. 
Class  3.     Amphibians,  the  frogs  and  toads. 
Class  4.     Reptilia,  the  snakes  and  turtles. 
Class  5.     Mammalia,  the  cows,  horses,  etc. 
The  mammals  have  nine  orders  represented  by 
the  sloth,  sea-cow,  whales,  ground  moles,  bats,  rab- 
bits, minks,  hoofed  animals,  and  man. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  so  many  of  these 
groups  are  represented  by  animals  to  be  found  in  al- 
most every  locality.  Pupils  should  make  a  list  of  all 
the  animals  they  can  think  of  in  their  neighborhood. 

See  how  well  the  pupils  can  classify  their  lists 
into  these  large  groups. 

Note  to  teachers: —  The  lessons  which  follow 
on  insects  may  be  too  difficult  for  rural  schools.  The 
teacher  should  adapt  the  lessons  to  the  pupils  interest 
and  capabilities. 


192  ONE    HUNDBED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  LXXI 

Title.— The  Orders  of  Insects. 

Season. — Spring  or  Autumn. 

Object. — To  learn  the  different  orders  of  insects. 

Material. — Note-book  and  pencil. 

SbBJECT-MATTEB  AND   METHOD 

Pupils  should  make  an  outline  in  their  note-books, 
from  the  facts  presented  in  this  introductory  lesson 
on  insects. 

Note — Insects  are  characterized  by  three  segments 
of  the  body: — head,  thorax,  and  abdomen;  three  pairs 
of  jointed  legs  and  usually  two  pairs  of  wings.  The 
differences  in  the  wings  distinguish  the  different  or- 
ders of  insects.    A  few  are  without  wings. 

Insect  bodies  are  covered  with  a  more  or  less  har- 
dened skin,  their  eyes  are  compound,  and  their  mouths 
are  adapted  for  biting  or  sucking.  There  are  usually 
four  stages  in  the  life  history  of  the  insect;  the  egg, 
the  larva,  the  pupa,  and  the  adult.  The  length  of  life 
history  varies  from  a  few  hours  to  several  years. 
There  are  more  than  250,000  species  of  insects, 
grouped  in  the  following  orders,  as  given  in  the  pre- 
ceding lesson: 

I.  Orthoptera.  Four  wings,  front  pair  thickened, 
the  hind  pair  thin  and  folded.    Hind  legs  usually  devel- 


ELEMEKTABT  AGEICULTUBK  198 

Oped   for  jumping.     Mouths  adapted   for  biting  anS 
chewing.     The  grasshopper,  locust,  cricket,  etc. 

2.  Lepidoptera.  Four  wings,  covered  with  over- 
lapping scales;  mouth  parts  modified  into  a  long  pro- 
boscis; the  larva  are  caterpillars — butterflies  and 
moths  are  examples. 

3.  Diptera.  Two  wings>  thin  and  membraneous, 
rudamentaryi  modifications  in  the  form  of  balancer 
knobs;  mouth  of  most  species  adapted  for  biting  and 
piercing;  the  larva  are  footless  maggots.  The  house- 
fly, mosquito  and  blue  bottle  fly  are  examples. 

4.  Hemiptera.  Four  wings,  usually  half  hardened 
and  half  membraneous,  sometimes  the  wings  are  ab- 
sent; mouth-parts  adapted  for  sucking;  body  flat,  and 
legs  slender.  These  are  the  true  bugs.  The  squash 
bug,  the  bed  bug,  and  the  louse,  are  examples. 

5.  Neuroptera.  Four  thin,  membraneous,  nerve'- 
veined  wings,  large  eyes;  slender  bodies;  mouth-parts 
adapted  for  biting.  The  dragon  fly  and  damsel  fly  are 
examples. 

6.  Hymenoptera.  Four  transparent  wings; 
heavy  bodies,  usually  provided  with  stings  in  the  fe- 
males; mouths  adapted  for  biting  and  lopping.  The 
bees,  wasps,  ants  are  examples. 

7.  Coleoptera.  Four  wings,  the  outer  pair  a 
horny  sheath  for  the  inner  membraneous  pair,  partly 
folded  beneath;  strong  legs;  mouth-parts  adapted  for 
for  biting  or  pinching;  the  larva  are  large  and  worm- 
like.     Beetles  are  examples. 

The  teacher  should  return  to  this  lesson  after 
the  series  of  lessons  on  insects  has  been  completed,  and 


194 


ONE    HUNDBED    LESSONS    IN 


have  the  pupils  make  a  list  of  as  many  insects  as  they 
can  from  each  order. 

It  would  be  a  good  lesson  to  require  each  pupil 
to  hand  in  a  collection  consisting  of  one  of  each  of 
the  above  orders  of  insects. 

References : — 

Id. — Pages   1 18-120. 

G.  &  M. — Pages  137-146. 


INSECT    NET 
(Courtesy   of   Orange  Judd   Co.,    Davis   Agriculture  ) 


ELEMENTABY  AGBICULTUBE  195 


LESSON  LXXII 

Title. — The  Grasshopper. 

Season. — Autumn. 

Object. — To   study   the   structure   and  habits   of   the 

grasshopper. 
Material.* — A  grasshopper  for  each  pupil,  note-book 

and  pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 

In  making  this  study  of  the  insects,  the  pupils 
should  first  draw  a  whole  body  view  of  the  insect,  and 
then  make  such  notes  and  answer  such  questions  as 
are  asked  in  the  lesson  outlines.  Determine  all  an- 
swers from  observation, 
(i).     Observe  in  the  field: 

Its  method  of  locomotion. 

Its  protective  coloration. 

Its  enemies.     Its  sounds.     Its  haunts. 

2.  With  the  living  insect,  try  to  find  the  breath- 
ing spiracle,  just  above  the  base  of  the  middle  legs. 
Watch  the  opening  and  closing  of  the  lips  of  this 
breathing  pore.  Put  the  grasshopper  under  a  tumbler 
and  sec  whether  it  will  eat  grass  or  leaves.  Perhaps  it 
lias  si)it  ^'tobacco  juice"  on  you.  Wliy  does  it(lo.tliis? 
How  nuich  farther  can  he  jump  than  the  leno^th  of  his 
body? 


196  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 

3.  In  what  ways  do  the  hind  pair  of  legs  differ 
from  the  others? 

Of  what  advantage  are  the  hooks  and  spines  on 
the  legs? 

Count  how  many  joints  there  are  on  each  leg. 

4.  Study  the  wings.  How  does  the  front  pair 
compare  with  the  hind  pair?  How  are  the  hind  wings 
folded  ?  By  rubbing  the  upper  and  lower  wings  togeth- 
er, the  grasshopper  sounds  are  made.  Make  a  draw- 
ing of  the  wings. 

5.  Study  the  mouth  parts.  These  are  the  most 
difficult  of  all  the  external  parts  to  see.  Find  the  fol- 
Jp-yving  parts: 

1.  The  upper  lip,  a  two-lobed  labrum. 

2.  A  pair  of  blackish  horny  mandibles,  covered 
by  the  upper  lip. 

3.  A  pair  of  jointed  maxillae  below  the  man- 
dibles. 

4.  A  two-lobed  lower  lip,  the  labium. 

6  The  female  has  at  the  end  of  the  abdomen,  four 
points  called  the  ovipositor.  These  are  used  for  mak- 
ing an  opening  into  the  ground  to  receive  the  eggs. 
Young  grasshoppers  are  called  nymphs  and  resemble 
the  adults  in  every  way  except  that  their  wings  are 
undeveloped. 

7.  Count  the  segments  of  the  abdomen.  Observe 
on  each  side  of  the  abdomen,  a  groove  and  just  above 
it  a  row  of  breathing  spiracles.  Observe  the  thin  mem- 
braneous depression  on  the  first  segment  of  the  ab- 
domen.   This  is  supposed  to  be  the  ear. 


ELEMENTABY  AGEICULTUBE 


197 


8.  Observe  the  eye.  Perhaps  you  can  see  that 
it  is  made  up  of  many  divisions.  The  grasshopper  has 
two  compound  eyes  and  three  simple  eyes.  Try  to 
find  these. 

9.  What  other  insects  belong  to  the  grasshopper 
family?     Are  they  injurious  on  the  farm?     How? 
*Note — For  killing  insects  prepare  a  cyanide  bottle  as 

follows:  Break  potassium  cyanide  into  small 
pieces  and  put  into  the  bottom  of  a  wide  mouthed 
bottle.  Avoid  the  deadly  poisonous  fumes.  Pour 
over  the  pieces  just  enough  water  to  cover  them. 
Add  plaster  of  paris  until  the  water  is  absorbed. 
Leave  unstoppered  until  the  contents  are  dried, 
then  cork  tightly.  Insects  dropped  into  the  bottle 
will  die,    Keep  the  bottle  from  phiWrenf 


KILLING   BOTTLE.  GREEN   STRIPED   GRASSHOPPER 

(Courtesy   of  Orange  Judd   Co.,    Davis   Agriculture) 


198  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  LXXIII 

Title.— The  Butterfly. 
Season. — Spring  or  Autumn. 
Object.— To  study  the  butterfly. 

Material. — A  cabbage  butterfly  for  each  pupil.  Note- 
book and  pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 

Every  country  boy  or  girl  knows  the  white  cab- 
bage butterfly  and  its  associate  the  sulphur  butterfly. 
With  freshly  killed  specimen  take  up  the  study  as  fol- 
lows: 

1.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  whole  body,  showing 
the  characteristic  markings. 

2.  How  many  segments  to  the  body?  What 
are  the  appendages  from  these  segments? 

3.  How  do  the  legs  compare  with  those  of  the 
grasshopper? 

4.  Write  a  descriptive  sentence  about  each  of 
the  following  points  of  the  wings :  action ;  shape ;  over- 
lapping; scale-covering;  and  vein-structure. 

5.  How  many  segments  to  the  abdomen?  Are 
they  like  those  of  the  grasshopper? 

6.  Examine  the  mouth  of  the  butterfly.  Find  the 
coiled  tube  which  it  uses  to  obtain  the  nectar  from 
the  flower.     With  a  pin  uncoil  it  and  note  its  length. 


ELEMBNTABY  AGBICULTUBE  199 

7.  Answer  the  following  points  on  the  observa- 
tion of  a  live  butterfly : 

1.  Its  manner  of  flight. 

2.  The  kind  of  food  and  the  manner   of  feeding. 

3.  The  natural  enemies  of  the  butterfly. 

4.  The  position  of  the  wings  when  at  rest. 

8.  What  is  the  damage  done  by  the  cabbage  but- 
terfly?    How   can  we   successfully  combat  them? 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  common  toad  is 
the  best  friend  we  have  in  the  garden  to  rid  the  cab- 
bage of  this  pest. 

9.  What  is  the  life-history  of  the  butterfly?  This 
question  will  be  asked  in  connection  with  all  the  in- 
sects we  shall  study,  therefore  a  general  answer  should 
probably  be  given  to  make  this  point  clear.  The  cab- 
bage butterfly  lays  its  eggs,  attached  singly,  usually 
to  the  lower  surface  of  cabbage  leaves.  They  are 
small,  and  are  pale-yellowish  in  color.  These  hatch 
into  larva,  the  so-called  cabbage  worms.  After  these 
have  fed  upon  the  cabbage  leaves  for  some  time,  they 
spin  from  their  mouths  a  silken  pod  around  them- 
selves ;  this  pod  is  called  the  pupa.   The  pupa  is  usually 


CABBAGE  BUTTERFLY 
'(Courtesy  of  Oresge  Judd  Co.,  Davis  Agriculture.) 


SOO  ONS    HUNDRED    LES80N8    IK 

found  on  old  fences  or  posts.  In  a  short  time  the 
pupa  ruptures,  and  a  full  grown  cabbage  butterfly 
crawls  out,  dries  its  wings  and  flies  away  to  begin  the 
life  history  of  a  new  generation. 

10.     If  you  can  get  a  moth  compare  it  with  the 
butterfly  as  follows: 

1.  Difference  in  the  feelers.   (Antennae). 

2.  Manner  of  folding  the  wings  when  at  rest. 

3.  Time  of  flying,  day  or  night. 

4.  Comparative  size  of  bodies. 

Note — Butterflies  and  moths  belong  to  this  family  of 
insects. 

References : — 

Id. — Pages   122-125. 


ELEMENTARY  AGEICULTtJBE  201 


LESSON   LXXIV 

Title.— The  House-fly. 

Season. — Autumn. 

Object. — To  learn  of  the  fly  and  of  the  dangers  of  the 

house-fly. 
Material. — A  house-fly  for  each  pupil  of  the  class. 

SIJBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

1.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  common  house-fly. 

2.  Write  a  sentence  on  each  of  the  following 
points,  based  upon  your  own  observation  of  a  live  fly : 

1.  The   rapidity  of  the  wing  motion. 

2.  Its  manner  of  eating. 

3.  Its   favorite  haunts. 

4.  How  many  wings  has  the  fly?  Look  under 
the  wings  and  try  to  find  the  little  white  knobs,  called 
the  balancers. 

5.  Note  how  rough  and  hairy  the  legs  and  feet  of 
the  fly  are. 

Would  they  hold  filth  and  dirt  so  that  it  could  be 
carried? 

6.  How  does  the  abdomen  of  the  fly  compare 
with  other  insects  we  have  studied?  Count  the  seg- 
ments of  the  abdomen. 

7.  The  life  history  of  the  fly  family  may  br 
studied  easily  in  the  school-room.  Expose  out  of  doors 
a  bit  of  lean  meat,  so  that  the  eggs  may  be  laid  upon 


202  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 

it.  The  blue-bottle  fly  will  lay  eggs  upon  meat.  Fill 
a  tin-can  or  box  with  sand,  and  on  a  chip  in  the  center 
of  it  place  the  bit  of  meat  with  the  eggs  on  it.  Invert 
a  glass  tumbler  over  it,  and  push  the  rim  of  the  tum- 
bler down  into  the  sand  to  prevent  the  escape  of  offen- 
sive odors.  In  a  few  hours  the  eggs  will  hatch,  and  in 
a  few  days  the  larva  will  be  fully  grown.  They  will 
probably  crawl  under  the  chip  to  change  into  pupae. 
They  may  come  out  soon  as  adult  flies,  or  they  may  re- 
main over  winter  in  this  stage.  The  house-fly  lays 
its  eggs  in  manure  and  filth  and  is  transformed  through 
the  same  stages  of  life  history. 

Rules  Against  Flies. 

1.  F.lies  are  very  dangerous  in  the  spread  of  dis- 
ease, therefore  we  should  not  allow  any  decaying  or- 
ganic  matter  to   accumulate   in   which  they   can  breed. 

2.  If  the  cellar  is  damp,  clean  out  the  dark  and 
damp  corners  and  apply  lime. 

3.  Pour  kerosene  into  the  drains  and  also  treat 
with  kerosene  all  waste  materials  not  intended  for  fer- 
tilizers. 

4.  If  kitchen  waste  is  deposited  in  large  cans,  it 
should  be  removed  at  least  once  a  week. 

5.  Kitchen  waste  intended  as  food  for  hogs 
should  be  remo\ed  and  used  daily. 

6.  Haul  out  the  manure  and  spread  it  on  the  soil 
every  day,  or  put  it  in  a  screened  box  to  be  emptied 
over  the  fields  or  gardens  at  least  once  a  week. 

7.  If  inconvenient  to  haul  the  manure  at  short 
intervals,  treat  it  with  kerosene  or  gypsum. 


ELEMENTABY   AGBICULTURE  203 

8.  Keep  up  the  work  of  destroying  adult  flies  by 
the  usual  methods  and  judiciously  screen  against 
them. 

9.  Flies  are  born  and  breed  in  filth;  they  arc 
among  the  worst  agencies  in  the  spread  of  typhoid  fe- 
ver, and  every  means  possible  should  be  used  to  ban- 
ish them  from  our  homes. 


THE   FLY 
Courtesy   of   Orange  Judd    Co.,    Davis    Agriculture.) 


204  ONE    HUNDBED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON   LXXV 

Title.— The  Bugs. 
Season. — Autumn. 

Object. — To  become  familiar  with  the  bug  family. 
Material. — A  squash  bug,  or  "stink  bug,"  or  harvest 
fly  for  each  pupil  in  the  class. 


StBJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 

If  it  is  possible  to  catch  a  two-year  cicada,  some- 
times called  "dog-day  harvest  fly,"  or  improperly,  the 
locust,  this  will  make  the  best  specimen  for  the  study 
of  the  true  bugs.  If  none  of  these  can  be  got,  a  squash 
bug  will  illustrate  the  characteristics  of  all  bugs. 

1.  Draw  the  view  of  the  whole  body. 

2.  How  many  wings  are  there.  Note  in  the 
squash  bug  that  the  front  half  of  the  wing  is  horny 
and  that  the  back  half  is  membraneous. 

3.  Note  the  triangular  prominence  of  the  thorax 
on  the  back. 

4.  Observe  the  mouth  parts.  What  does  the 
bug's  mouth  show  as  to  his  manner  of  eating? 

5.  For  what  kind  of  locomotion  are  the  legs 
adapted? 

6.  Find  the  eyes  and  feelers.  Write  a  sentence 
describing  each. 


ELEMENTARY    AGRICULTURE 


206 


7.  What  is  the  life  history  of  the  squash  hug  and 
cicada? 

8.  All  the  bugs  belong  in  this  family,  together 
with  the  plant  lice,  tree  hoppers,  scales,  etc. 

9.  This  is  an  injurious  family  of  insects,  and  the 
kerosene  emulsion  spray  is  the  means  of  combating  in 
most  cases. 


DOG-DAY    HARVEST    FLY 
(Courtesy   of  Orange  Judd   Co.,    Davis   Agriculture) 


206  ONE    HUNDBED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON   LXXVI 

Title. — The  Dragon  Fly. 

Season. — Autumn. 

Object. — To  study  the  form  andi  life  of  the  dragon  fly 

Material. — A  dragon  fly  for  each  member  of  the  class. 

ST  BJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 

1.  Dragon  or  damsel  flies  will  have  to  be  caught 
with  a  net.  They  are  usually  seen  flying  about  the 
ponds  or  streams  of  water. 

2.  Answer  the  following  questions  from  the  ob- 
servation of  a  living  specimen : 

1.  What  is  their  habit  of  flight? 

2.  What  is  their  food? 

3.  How  do  the  dragon  fly  and  damsel  fly  differ 
in  habits? 

4.  What  is  the  position  of  the  wings  at  rest? 

3.  After  killing  the  dragon  fly  in  the  cyanide  bot- 
tle, straighten  its  wings  and  legs  and  draw  the  whole 
body  view. 

4.  How  do  the  legs  compare  with  those  of  the 
grasshopper? 

5.  How  many  wings  are  there?  Write  a  descrip- 
tive sentence  about  them. 

6.  Note  the  enormous  development  of  the  eyes 
What  would  this  indicate  as  to  their  habit  of  life?  Find 


ELEMENTABY  AGBICULTUBE 


207 


the  three  small  simple  eyes,  and  tell  where  they  are 
located. 

7.  Write  a  descriptive  sentence  about  the  abdo- 
men.   How  many  segments? 

8.  Does  the  dragon  fly  have  a  sting? 

9.  The  life  history: — The  eggs  are  laid  in  the 
water.  They  hatch  into  a  nyr.ipb,  a  form  resembling 
the  adult  without  wings.  In  this  stage  they  live  in 
the  water,  and  eat  greedily  upon  small  water  insects. 
At  this  stage  they  are  beneficial  in  eating  mosquito 
larva.  When  the  nymph  is  fully  grown  it  crawls  out 
of  the  water  upon  some  convenient  rock  or  reed,  fas- 
tens its  feet  firmly,  splits  down  the  back,  and  the  adult 
dragon  fly  crawls  out,  dries  itself,  and  is  soon  ready  to 

fly. 

10.     The  dragon  fly  is  a  beneficial  insect  because  it 
preys  upon  other  insects  that  are  pests  to  us. 


A    DRAGON    FLY 
(Courtesy   of   Orange  Judd    Co.,    Davis   Agriculture) 


208  OmC    HUNDBED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  LXXVII 

Title.— The  Bee. 
Season. — Autumn. 

Object. — To  study  the  structure  and  life  of  the  bum- 
ble bee. 
Material. — A  bumble  bee  for  each  member  of  the  class. 

SIBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

1.  Answer  the  following  questions  on  the  bum- 
blebees based  upon  field  observation. 

(a)  What  kind  of  flowers  do  they  feed  upon? 

(b)  Are  they  shy  while  feeding?  Will  they  sting 
then?  - 

(c)  Do  they  stay  long  at  each  flower? 

(d)  What  do  they  gather  from  the  flower? 

(e)  Explain  how  they  help  the  flower. 

(f)  How  does  their  manner  of  flight  compare 
with  that  of  the  butterfly. 

2.  Kill  the  bee  in  the  cyanide  bottle,  and  make 
a  drawing  of  the  body. 

3.  Note  the  large  body  in  comparison  to  the 
wings.  Do  you  think  that  the  wings  easily  wear  out? 
How  many  wings  are  there? 

4.  Are  the  legs  of  the  bee  all  alike?    Explain. 

5.  Try  to  find  the  mouth-parts  and  the  tongue. 


ELEMENTARY   AGRICULTUBE 


209 


Worker. 


Queen. 
HONEY   BEE 


210  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 

6.  Can  you  see  any  value  in  the  hairy  covering  of 
the  bee's  body? 

7.  Find  the  sting  of  the  bee  and  remove  it. 
There  is  a  poison  gland  at  the  root  of  the  sting,  which 
pours  a  fluid  into  the  wound  made  by  the  sting,  caus- 
ing the  painful  sensation  with  which  every  boy  is  fa- 
miliar. 

8.  Where  does  the  bumble  bee  make  its  nest? 
What  is  it  made  of? 

9.  Life  history: — The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  cells. 
The  second  stage  is  the  wormlike  creature,  the  larva, 
lying  inactive  in  the  cell.  It  must  be  fed  and  it  is  a 
big  eater.  When  it  is  fully  grown  it  spins  a  silken 
coccoon  about  itself  and  enters  the  next  stage.  The 
third  stage  is  the  pupa.  Here  it  remains  quietly  con- 
cealed within  its  coccoon,  over  which  the  workers 
spread  a  thin  layer  of  wax,  making  a  cell  of  it.  After 
a  time  it  cuts  its  way  through  the  top  of  the  cell  and 
comes  forth  a  fully  developed  bumble  bee. 

10.  To  this  family  belong  the  wasps,  hornets, 
sawflies,  gallflies,  ants,  and  honey  bees. 

Note — If  it  is  desired  to  make  an  extended  study  of 
the  honey  bee  as  an  insect  for  farm  use,  write  to 
Mr.  Frank  Benton,  of  the  Division  of  Entomology, 
Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  for  his 
Bee  Book  and  other  circulars. 

Reference: — G.   &   M. — Pages   201-208. 


ELEMENTARY    AGRICULTURE 


2:1 


Drone. 


:->^.  ■■) 


Queen. 
HONEY    BEE 


212  ONR    HtlNDREO    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  LXXVIII 

Title.—The   Beetle. 

Season. — Autumn. 

Object. —  To  learn  something  of  the  structure  and  life 

habits  of  the  beetles. 
Material. — A  beetle  for  each  pupil  in  the  class.  Any 

species  will  answer  the  purpose.     Blister  beetles 

may  be  found  on  goldenrod  in  autumn.    The  black 

ground  beetles  are  also  common. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND    METHOD 

1.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  beetle. 

2.  How  many  wings  has  the  beetle?  With  a 
freshly  killed  specimen  in  hand,  extend  the  two  horny, 
sheath  wing-covers  which  meet  by  smooth  edges  along 
the  middle  of  the  back,  completely  covering  the  thin 
membraneous  wings  beneath.  Spread  out  all  four  of 
these  wings  and  make  a  drawing  to  show  the  wing 
arrangement. 

3.  Write  a  descriptive  sentence  about  the  mouth 
parts.  Are  they  made  for  sucking  or  chewhig  and  bit- 
ing? 

4.  Write  a  sentence  telling  of  the  size  and  posi- 
tion of  the  eyes. 

5.  How  many  joints  in  the  beetle's  leg?  De- 
scribe the  claws. 


ELEMENTARY   AGRICULTURE 


21^ 


6.  How  many  segments  in  the  abdomen?  Com- 
pare the  upper  and  lower  surfaces. 

7.  Where  do  beetles  live?  Find  as  many  differ- 
ent kinds  as  you  can. 

8.  Life  history : — The  beetle  has  all  the  four  sta- 
ges :  egg,  larva,  pupa,  and  adult.  The  eggs  of  the  beetle 
hatch  into  grubs,  wire  worms,  borers,  etc.  In  this 
stage  they  do  great  damage  to  the  crops,  trees,  and 
other  vegetation.  From  the  grub  stage  they  pass 
into  a  pupa  stage  similar  to  all  other  insects.  The 
pupas  are  usually  in  the  ground  from  which  emerge 
adult  beetles. 

9.  Most  of  the  beetles  are  very  injurious  insects, 
the  tiger  beetles  and  lady  beetles  excepted,  and  since 
they  are  usually  chewing  insects  the  treatment  is  a 
lead  arsenate  or  Paris  green  spray. 

References  : — 

Id. — Pages    131 — 147. 


GROUND    BEETLE 

a.  Larva;   ft,  Adult. 
(Courtesy   of  Orange  Judd   Co.,    Davis   Agriculture.) 


214 


ONE    HUNDBEO    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  LXXIX 

Title. — Spraying  Calendar. 

Season. — At  any  time. 

Object. — To  learn  how  to  combat  insect  and  'fungous 

pests. 
Material. — Note-book   and   pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND    METHOD 

Copy  the  table  given  below  into  your  note-book 
and  study  it  so  that  you  can  write  it  from  memory 
when  the  first  column  is  given  you. 


Insect    Pest    or 
Fungous  Disease. 

When    to    Spray. 

With   What   to   Spray 
or   Treat 

Leaf-eating   insects 

When    insect    appears. 

Paris   green   or   lead 
arsenate. 

Sucking  Insects 

When    appearing. 

Before    buds    open    in 
spring. 

Kerosene  emulsion  or 
miscible  oils,  if  no 
foliage. 

Scale  insects 

Lime-sulphur    wash. 

Codling  moth  and 
tungous    injury 

Just   after   apple   blos- 
soms fall. 

Bordeaux  mixture  and 
lead  arsenate  com- 
bined. 

Potato  scab 

Treat  before   planting. 

Two  per  cent  solution 
of  formalin. 

SLriped  melon  beetle 

When    young    plant 

appears. 
Before    buds    open. 

Tobacco  dust  or  lime. 

Fruit  rot,  leaf  curl 
and  blight 

Bordeaux    mixture. 

All   borers 

Spraying   not   effective. 

Dig  out  with  wire  and 
coat  tree  trunk  with 
tar    or    lime    wash. 

Slugs 

Whenever    they    ap- 
pear. 

Hellebore. 

Peach  yellows 

spraying   not   effective. 

Cut  down  all  diseased 
trees  and   burn. 

ELEMENTARY   AGRICULTUBE 


216 


SPRAYING    APPARATUS 


216  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  LXXX 

Title. — Value  of  Birds  to  Agriculture. 

S«ason. — May  be  a  Winter  lesson. 

Object. — To  learn  something  of  the  value  of  the  birds 

to  the  farmer. 
Material. — Note-book  and  pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND    METHOD 

Some  Facts  About  Birds. 

The  native  birds  are  one  of  the  nation's  most  val- 
uable assets.  Jf  the  birds  are  destroyed,  in  a  very 
fev^  years  the  insects  will  have  mutiplied  to  such  an 
extent  that  our  trees  will  be  defoliated  and  our  crops 
destroyed.     This   is   not   fancy  but  plain   fact. 

It  has  been  found  by  observation  and  dissection, 
says  Chas.  K.  Reed,  that  a  Cuckoo  consumes  daily 
from  50  to  400  caterpillars,  and  that  a  Chickadee  will 
eat  from  200  to  500  insects  or  up  to  4000  insect  eggs. 
One  hundred  insects  a  day  is  a  small  estimate  of  the 
quantity  consumed  by  insect  eating  birds,  and  most  of 
our  birds  are  insect  eaters.  Not  only  do  they  destroy 
great  numbers  of  insects  but  they  eat  great  quantities 
of  weed  seeds  as  well.  The  State  of  Illinois  loses 
annually  about  $20,000,000  by  the  ravages  of  insects. 

It  is  the  duty,  and  it  should  be  the  pleasure  of 


ELEMENTABY  AGBICULTURE  217 

every  citizen,  to  do  all  in  his  power  to  protect  these 
valuable  birds,  and  to  encourage  them  to  remain  about 
th^ir   homes. 

Practical  Problems. 

1.  Suppose  that  the  damage  from  insects  in  your 
State  is  25c  an  acre.  How  much  would  that  be 
for  the  whole  State? 

2.  If  there  were  three  birds  on  every  acre,  how 
many  birds  would  there  be  in  this  State? 

3.  If  each  bird  eats  25  insects  a  day  (a  very  low 
estimate),  how  many  insects  would  be  destroyed  in 
this  State  during  the  months  of  June,  July,  and  Au- 
gust? 

4.  If  120,000  insects  fill  a  bushel  basket,  how 
many  bushels  of  insects  would  the  birds  eat  during  the 
summer  from  the  above  estimate? 

5.  Suppose  that  one-fourth  of  the  birds  in  this 
State,  as  calculated  above,  would  eat  one-fourth  of  an 
ounce  of  seed  daily,  how  many  pounds  of  weed  seeds 
would  our  birds  destroy  in  three  months? 

The  forces  that  work  against  the  increase  of  bird 
life  are  :  man  ;  the  climatic  elements  ;  accidents  ;  cats  ; 
other  animals ;  birds  of  prey,  and  snakes.  How  can 
we  help  the  birds  in  their  struggle  against  these  ene- 
mies? Each  one  of  us  can  do  something,  and  every 
time  we  save  the  life  of  one  bird  we  have  not  only 
done  a  kindness  to  the  creatures  we  should  love,  but 
we  have  rendered  service  to  the  cause  of  agriculture. 

References : — 

Id. — Pages  234-240. 

G.  &  M. — Pages  147-151. 


218 


ONE   HUITDBKD    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  LXXXI 

Title. — A  Comparison  of  the  Agricultural  Products  of 
Your  State  with  Those  of  Other  States.* 

Season. — A  Winter  lesson.. 

Object. — To  teach  pupils  how  the  products  of  their 
state  compare  with  the  products  of  other  states. 

Material. — Note-book   and   pencil. 


SirLJECT-MATTER   AND    METHOD 

Take  the  data  from  the  Year-book  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  for  1905,  and  fill  out  the  tabulation 
below : 


STATES             1       CORN             WHEAT            OATS 

HAY 

Acres 

Value  Acres 

Value  Acres 

1 
1 1 

Value 

Acres 

Value 

New    York 

', 1, 

West    Virginia    .... 

1 

1 

'1 


1 

1 

.  .  .    . 

1 

Ohio     







...    . 



Indiana 



..... 

Illinois     



Pennsylvania 

Virginia     

Georgia     

Alabama    

Iowa     

Kentucky     

Maryland     







*  (Adapted  from  Davis  Agriculture.) 


ELEMENTARY   AGRICULTURE  219 

Construct  a  similar  table  for  the  data  on  live  stock. 

1.  Horses:    number   and    value. 

2.  Mules  :  number  and  value. 

3.  Milch  cows:  number  and  value. 

4.  Sheep :  number  and  value. 

5.  Hogs  :  number  and  value. 

The  Year-book  may  be  secured  free  from  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  thror.;;'.! 
your  Congressman  or  Senator. 


AGRICULTURE  PRODUCTS  AND  BUSINESvS 
METHODS 

The  fact  that  billions  of  dollars  worth  of  farm  pic- 
ducts  are  produced  each  year  is  no  definite  indicatiMi 
that  farmers  are  always  prosperous.  The  farmers  mus; 
organize  and  work  together  for  that  combination  of 
quantity  and  price  of  their  j^roducts  that  would  bring 
the  greatest  surplus  or  profit.  They  must  somehow 
cease  to  follow  market  dictations,  and  b-^gin  to  control 
their  stock  of  goods  by  intelligent  sorting,  grading, 
packing,  storing  and  marketing. 


220 


ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  LXXXII 

Title.— Crop  Records.* 
Season. — At  any  time. 
Object. — To  teach  pupils  how  to  keep  records  of  crops 

in  a  field. 
Material. — Note-book  and  pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND    METHOD 

It  is  an  important  business  matter  for  the  farmer 
to  keep  year  by  year  a  record  of  the  production  of  each 
field.  This  lesson  should  impress  upon  the  pupils  the 
iirportpnce  of  keeping  such  records  neatly  and  accur- 
c'tely.  Use  the  form  below,  and  require  each  pupil  to 
1  -  c])  a  record  of  one  of  the  fields  at  his  own  home. 
Xtatly  fill  out  the  form  in  the  ai>ricultiiral  note-book. 
vvd  add  the  data  from  time  to  time  as  the  field  is 
farmed. 


Name    P.    Q 

Crop    Previous    Crop 


Kind  of  Soil    No.  of  Acres 


Preparation   of  the   Soil. 

Date   of    plowing    Date    of    Cultivation    . 

Depth    of    plowing    Implement    used    

Cost  of  plowing    Cost  of  prep,  seed  bed 


(Adapted  from  Davis  Agriculture.) 


ELEMENTARY    AGRICULTUEE 


221 


Seeding    and   Cultivation. 


Date    of    seeding 
Amount  of   seed 
Cost  of  seed    .  .  . 
Fertilizer    used    . 


Cost  of  fertilizer  .  . 
Dates  of  cultivation 
Implements  used  .  . 
Cost    of    cultivation 


Harvest. 


Date   of  harvest    

Cost   of   harvest    

Total   cost  of  the  crop. 

Insect    injury     

Fungous   injury    


Quality  of    the   harvest 

Yield,    grain     

Yield,    fodder    

Yield    per   acre    

Net   profit   per   acre    .  . 


Note. — In  connection  with  this  lesson  it  would  be 
a  valuable  supplimentary  exercise  to  -establish  a  school 
bank.  The  pupils  of  the  school  should  elect  a  presi- 
dent, board  of  directors,  cashier  and  clerk.  The  teacher 
should  provide  a  suitable  receptacle  for  money  deposits 
and  the  proper  bank-books,  checks,  etc.  Encourage  the 
pupils  to  make  deposits,  keep  bank-books  and  draw  out 
only  with  properly  signed  checks. 

Our  boys  and  girls  should  become  familial  with 
these   simpk   business   proceedings. 


222  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  LXXXIII 

Title. — An   Estimate   of  the   Cost  and   Receipts  of   a 

Good  Crop  Rotation. 
Season. — A  Winter  lesson. 
Object. — To  calculate  the  net  proceeds  of  a  ten  acre 

field  in  a  crop  rotation  of  two  years  with  clover, 

corn  and  wheat. 
Material. — Note-book  and  pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 

Have  pupils  compare  the  data  given  in  the  ten  acre 
rotation  below  with  prices  and  conditions  in  their 
home  vicinity.  The  figures  below  are  the  actual  rec- 
ord of  an  Illinois  field  under  standard  cultivation  con- 
ditions :  , 

1.  Clover   pown   in   wheat  in   March — 

Number  of  bushels    1 

Cost    of   seed $6 .  50 

Cost  of   labor    $1 .  25 

2.  Wheat  cut  in   July.      Threshed   and  marketed — 

Yield    200    bushels 

Value  of  yield    $160.00 

Total   cost  of   labor    $17 .  50 

3.  Pasture  in   clover    in   the   Fall — 

No.   of  head    6 

No.    of  months    2 

Income   from    pasture    $12  .  00 

4.  Clover   hay   harvested   next   June — • 

No.   of  tons    12 

Price    per    ton     $5 .  00 

Cost   of  labor    $12 .  00 

5.  Clover   seed  crop  in   the  Fall       Husked   and  marketed — 

No.    bushels    yield     16 

Value    of    yield     $90 .  00 

Cost  of  labor    $20 .  00 


SLSMENTABY  A6BICULTUBE  223 

6.  Plow  for  corn  the   following   Spring,   and   plant — 

Cost   of    labor    $10 .  00 

Cost  of  seed    (H4   bushels)     $1.00 

Four    cultivations. Cost    of    labor    for    cultivation  $7.50 

7.  Seeding  wheat  in  the  corn  in    September — 

Cost  of  seed,    ly^    bushels   per    acre    $12.00 

Cost  of   labor    $4 .  00 

8.  Corn  harvest  in  the  Fall — 

Number   of  bushels    500 

Value   of   the   yield    $200 .  50 

Cost    of    labor $15  .  00 

Let  the  students  calculate  the  total  cost  and  re- 
ceipts of  this  rotation  and  the  net  gain  on  one  acre  for 
one  year. 

The  last  census  shows  that  the  average  annual 
crop  per  acre  in  this  country  is  valued  at  $ii.  Hovv 
does  this  annual  crop  compare  with  the  average? 

What  does  the  farm  upon  which  you  live  yield 
per  acre? 

What  crops  yield  the  highest  net  returns  per  acre 
in  your  locality? 


224  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  LXXXIV 

Title — Treating  Grains  to  Prevent  Smut. 

Season. — Previous  to  planting  any  grain. 

Object. — To  learn  how  to  treat  grains  to  prevent  smut. 

Material. — Bacteria  cultures  and  the  seed. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND    METHOD 

Smut  has  been  quite  prevalent  in  the  grain  fields 
throughout  the  country,  and  there  are  still  a  number 
of  farmers  who  have  not  learned  the  simple  formalin 
metnod  of  preventing  it.  If  the  school  will  make  sim- 
ple demonstration  lessons  upon  grains  brought  in  by 
the  pupils  from  the  farms,  much  good  can  be  done, 
and  great  injury  prevented  among  the  grain  fields. 

In  time  before  the  corn,  oats  or  wheat  is  to  be 
planted,  get  about  a  pint  of  formalin,  and  have  it  on 
hand  for  this  lesson.  Ask  a  pupil  to  bring  a  bush- 
el of  oats  or  wheat  to  the  school  for  this  demonstra- 
tion. Mix  about  one-half  ounce  of  formalin  in  two  gal- 
lons of  water.  Spread  the  seed  thinly  upon  the  floor, 
(if  not  on  the  school  floor,  a  barn  floor  nearby  might 
be  used),  and  sprinkle  the  seeds  with  the  mixture  un- 
til they  are  all  thoroughly  moistened.  Cover  closely 
with  a  blanket  of  some  kind  for  a  few  hours,  and  the 
seeds  are  ready  for  planting.  Try  this  and  the  per- 
cent of  smut  at  the  next  harvest  will  be  materially 
lessened. 


ELEMENTABY  AGRICULTURE  226 

If  this  work  be  done  for  all  those  who  bring  seed 
to  the  school,  or  if  it  be  done  at  the  homes  of  the 
community  because  of  the  demonstration  at  the  school, 
it  will  be  a  new  line  of  h-elpfulness  for  a  school  in  a 
community. 

References : — 

Id. — Pages   107-108. 

G.  &  M. — Pages  59-60. 


226  ONE    HUNDBED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON   LXXXV 

Title. — Treating  the  Legumes  for  Bacteria. 

Season. — Previous  to  planting  the  seed. 

Object. — To  learn  how  to  get  a  "catch"  of  clover  or 

cowpeas. 
Material. — Bacteria  cultures  and  the  seed. 

SI  BJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 

Few  farmers  have  realized  the  value  of  treating 
the  seeds  of  clover  and  other  legumes  before  planting 
to  insure  the  presence  of  nitrogen-fixing  bacteria.  The 
school  should  treat  such  seeds  as  a  demonstration  for 
the  farmers  of  the  community  and  as  a  valuable  les- 
son for  the  pupils. 

Send  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington, 
D.  C,  f-r  the  bacteria  cultures^  for  legumes  and  di- 
rections for  using.  These  bacteria  will  come  from 
Washington  in  a  dried  condition,  resembling  yeast 
cakes.  Dissolve  them  in  water  and  supply  with  nutri- 
ent salts.  Two  of  the  Sach's  plant-food  tablets  to  a 
pint  of  water,  referred  to  in  a  former  lesson,  will  fur- 
nish the  nutrition  for  the  bacteria.  After  the  wat^r 
solution  becomes  milky  with  the  growth  of  the  bac- 
teria, pour  the  legume  seeds  into  this  solution  and  leave 
for  a  few  hours.'  Then  dry  the  seeds  carefully  and 
they  are  ready  for  sowing. 


ELEMENTARY   AGRICULTURE  227 

Some  very  marked  results  have  been  shown  by  the 
"catching"  of  clover  on  soils  which  would  formerly 
not  grow  that  crop. 

Note. — The  cause  of  failure  in  the  clover  crop 
many  times  is  due  to  a  certain  fungous  disease,  which 
turns  the  clover  black  and  soon  kills  a  whole  field  of 
it.  No  remedy  has  been  discovered  for  this  disease  of 
clover. 

References: — G.    &    M. — Pages    231-236. 


228  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  LXXXVI 

Title. — Roads  and   Road-making. 

Season. — Autumn  or  Spring. 

Object. — To   learn   something   of   the   value    of   good 

roads,  and  some  of  the  principles  of  road-making. 
Material. — Note-book    and   pencil.      Team    of   horses, 

wagon,  plow,  spades  and  gravel. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 

In  the  presentation  of  this  important  lesson  the 
teacher  should  attempt  to  do  two  things:  First,  to 
have  a  regular  text-book  recitation  upon  the  values 
and  principles  of  good  roads ;  and  second,  to  direct  thx? 
work  of  real  road  construction,  if  no  other  than  a 
properly  made  path  from  the  school-house  door  to  the 
main   road. 

Part  I. 

I.  Our  life  in  the  country  will  never  be  as  attrac- 
tive as  it  ought  to  be  until  we  have  good  roads.  Bad 
winter  roads  that  keep  the  young  people  in  their  homes 
for  many  months,  cause  them  to  grow  to  dislike  the 
country,  and  to  join  that  throng  of  restless  humanity 
moving  steadily  toward  the  cities.  Will  not  the  young 
people  who  love  their  country  homes  enter  into  this 
crusade  for  better  roads? 


ELEMENTARY   AGRICULTUBE 


229 


All  industrial  interests  are  affected  by  the  nature 
and  condition  of  th-e  country  roads  over  which  the 
products  of  the  farm  are  transported  to  market,  but  it 
is  the  farmer  who  suffers  most  from  the  inferior  roads 
which  constitute  so  large  a  percentage  of  the  road  sys- 
tem of  the  United  States.  Over  our  country  roads 
there  are  annually  hauled  at  least  250,000,000  tons.  A 
system  of  better  roads  would  reduce  the  cost  of  haul- 
ing this  volume  of  freight  one-half  or  two-thirds  of 
what  it  now  costs.  Lead  the  class  to  see  the  following 
values  of  good  roads : 

1.  The  direct  saving  in  dollars  and  cents. 

2.  A  saving  of  time. 


A   BAD    ROAD 
(Courtesy  of   B.   F.   Johnson   Pub.    Co.) 


230  ONE    HUNDBED    LESSONS    IN 

3.  Makes  country  life  more  desirable. 

4.  Makes  school  and  church  attendance  more 
convenient. 

5.  More  humane  to  horses. 

6.  Helps  every  industry  of  the  country  and  the 
city. 

As  a  part  of  the  preparation  of  this  lesson  each 
pupil  should  write  a  brief  essay  upon  one  of  these  top- 
ics. 

2.  Points  in  the  construction  of  a  good  road: 

1.  A  level  road  or  gradual  grade  whenever 
possible. 

2.  The  road  bed,  highest  in  the  middle  and 
sloping  to  each  side,  having  a  fall  of  one  inch  to 
three  or  four  feet. 

3.  Under  drains  in  wet  places  and  side  ditches 
to  carry  off  surface  water  should  furnish  the  drain- 
age necessary  for  good  roads.  Water,  standing  or 
running  in  roads  is  the  great  destroyer  of  good  roads. 

4.  The  surface  should  be  hard  and  smooth.  A 
good  surface  is  made  by  putting  a  layer  of  larger  stones 
at  the  bottom,  a  layer  of  smaller  stones,  next, .  and 
crushed  stone  or  gravel  as  the  top  layer. 

5.  Ordinary  earth  roads  can  be  improved  by 
proper  grading  and  drainage.  The  best  time  to  do 
this  is  in  'the  Spring  after  the  ground  is  settled. 

6.  Drains  should  be  kept  op\?n  and  all  depres- 
sions filled. 

Pupils  should  write  a  paragraph  on  one  of  these 

toptcf^^  in  their  note-books. 


ELEMENTABY  AQBICULTUBE 

Part  II. 


231 


For  the  second  part  of  this  lesson  it  might  be 
possible  at  the  school,  to  construct  a  path  from  the 
school  house  to  some  desired  point  a  few  rods  away, 
according  to  the  best  principles  of  road-making. 

If  some  of  the  larger  boys  or  some  school  patron 
would  furnish  a  few  loads  of  coarse  stone,  a  few  loads 
of  gravel,  a  plow  and  a  team  for  a  few  hours,  an  inter- 


A    GOOD    ROAD 
(Courtesy   of   B.   F.   Johnson   Publishing   Co.) 


232  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 

esting  and  profitable  demonstration  of  good  road-mak- 
ing could  be  made  at  the  school. 

1.  Select  the  line  for  the  road  or  walk. 

2.  Measure  off  a  space  six  feet  wide,  the  entire 
length  of  the  walk  to  be  constructed,  and  mark  it  with 
stakes. 

3.  Plow  up  the  whole  area,  turning  it  toward  the 
middle.  Then  with  spades  or  a  scraper,  if  the  space 
is  large,  grade  it  up  from  the  sides  to  the  center,  so 
that  the  center  is  about  one  inch  higher  than  the  level 
of  the  ground  where  it  is  not  plowed. 

4.  Place  a  layer  of  coarse  stones  over  this  surface 
next,  and  a  layer  of  gravel  or  finer  stones  over  the 
coarser  stones.  Smooth  it  all  over  so  that  the  walk 
gradually  slopes  from  the  center  to  the  ditch,  left 
at  the  side  by  the  plow's  furrow. 

5.  The  walk  is  now  ready  for  use.  The  side  ditch 
or  drain  should  be  kept  open,  and  the  road  bed  proper- 
ly graded. 

References: — Farmers'  Bulletin,   No.    136. 


ELEMENTARY    AGRICULTURE 


233 


LESSON  LXXXVII 

Title. — An  Assessment  of  Farm  Values. 

Season. — May  be  a  Winter  study. 

Object. — To  learn  how  to  assess  the  property  for  tax 

on  tihe  home  farm. 
Material. — Note-book  and  pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 

Have  each  pupil  make  a  list  of  the  real  and  per- 
sonal property  owned  by  his  parents,  with  values  such 
as  could  be  received  from  sale.  Use  the  form  given 
below,  and  make  a  neat  record  of  the  assessment  in 
the  note-book: 

Assessment  Record. 


TtafPL    

PROPERTY. 

Number 

Valuation 

1.     Acres   of  land    

2.      Buildings     

3.     Horses 

4.      Cattle     

5.     Sheep    

6.     Hogs     

7.      Poultry     

8.     Farm   machinery    

9.     Oats    

10.     Wheat    

11.     Corn     

13.      Hay     

14.     Money  in  bank  or  notes    

Total    

Rate    of  taxation 
Total    tax    


234  ONE    HUNDBED    LESSOIfS    IN 


LESSON  LXXXVIII 

Title. — Farm  Work-shops  and  Experimental  Labora- 
tories. 

Season. — A  Winter  lesson. 

Object. — To  learn  something  of  the  value  of  a  work- 
shop and  laboratory  to  the  farmer. 

Material. — Note-book  and  pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 

1.  Every  farmer  should  have  a  building,  or  room 
in  some  building,  in  which  he  can  do  experimental 
work  with  plants,  soils,  etc.,  and  in  which  he  can  do 
wood  working,  forging  in  iron,  and  general  shop  work. 
A  shop  well  equipped  with  carpenter's  tools,  a  forge 
and  anvil,  work-bench  and  its  equipments  would  save 
the  farmer  many  dollars  and  much  time  in  the  repair- 
ing of  his  implements  and  buildings.  This  same  work- 
shop might  be  provided  with  apparatus  for  seed  test- 
inof.  fruit  pruning  and  grafting,  soil  testing  and  analyz- 
ing, and  various  other  chemicals  and  apparatus  used 
in  experimental  work  with  plants  and  animals.  It  is 
through  intelligent  experimenting  and  careful  read- 
ing that  the  farmer  of  the  future  is  to  take  his  place 
successfully  among  the  industrial  peoples  of  the  coun- 
try. 

2.  A  room  so  equipped  on  every  farm  would  fur- 
nish interesting  and  profitable  work  during  the  winter 


ELEMENTARY   ACEICULTURE  235 

months,  and  the  results  of  the  experiment  in  these  lab- 
oratories might  be  profitably  applied  on  the  farm. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  materials  and  furnish- 
ings that  might  be  useful  in  the  farm  laboratory: 

1.  Work-bench  and  carpenter's  tools. 

2.  Forge  and  anvil,  with  necessary  tools  accom- 
panying. 

3.  Medicine  case  with  drugs  for  animals ;  and 
chemicals,  such  as,  formalin,  sulphuric  acid,  ammonia, 
copper  sulphate,  lime,  sulphur,  lead  arsenate,  Paris 
green,  hellebore,  phosphoric  acid,  potash,  sodium  ni- 
trate, etc.,  etc. 

4.  Tight  case  for  various  seeds. 

5.  Boxes  of  clay,  sand  and  humus  soils. 

6.  Table  for  general  experimental  work. 

7.  Water  supply  and  means  of  heating  the  room. 
The  pupils  and  teacher  may  add  other  materials 

to  the  above  room,  and  as  a  part  of  the  work  of 
this  lesson,  the  pupils  should  draw  the  ground-floor 
plan  of  such  a  room  as  described  above,  and  indicate 
in  their  plan,  where  they  would  place  the  diiTerent 
furnishings  of  the  shop. 

References : — Farmers'   Bulletin,   No.   270  and  347. 


236 


ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  LXXXIX 

Title. — Farm  Machinery. 

Season. — A   Winter  lesson. 

Object. — To  learn  some  facts  regarding  farm  machin- 
ery, to  encourage  the  use  of  improved  machinery, 
and  to  understand  the  importance  of  caring  for  and 
repairing  farm  machinery. 

Material. — Note-book  and  pencil.  Various  farm  im- 
plements. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 


I.  The  drudgery  of  farm  life  is  gradually  being 
reduced  by  the  invention  and  improvement  of  farm 
tools  and  machines.  The  following  comparisons  show 
the  great  development  in  farm  implements: 


THE  OLD   WAY. 
The  hoe. 
The  grass  cycle. 
The  grain  cradle. 
The  single  plow. 
The  corn  knife. 
The  "up  and  down  churn." 


THE    NEW  WAY. 

The  horse-drawn   cultivator. 

The  horse   mower   and   rake. 

The  steam-drawn  harvester. 

The  steam  gang  plow. 

The  corn  reaper  and  husker. 

The  "quick   coming"   churn. 


2.     Points  in  the  care  of  farm  machinery: 

1.  The  farmer  must  know  how  to  manage  his 
machine. 

2.  Farm  machine  must  not  be  left  in  the  field 
to  rust  and  rot. 

3.  As  soon   as   any  tool  or  machine  has   fin- 


ELEMENTABY  AQBICULTUBE  237 

ished  its  work  for  the  season  it  should  be  carefully 
cleaned  and  housed. 

4.  Every   machine,   implement,      and      vehicle 
should  be  properly  oiled. 

5.  All  needed  repairs  should  be  promptly  made. 

6.  "Such  care  which  is  neither  costly  nor  bur- 
densome will  add  many  years  to  the  life  of  a  machine." 

3.  If  the  school  is  in  a  town,  the  teacher  should 
go  with  the  class  to  an  implement  store  and  observe 
the  different  farm  machines,  tools,  and  implements. 

4.  Make  a  list  of  the  different  kinds  of  plows, 
harrows,  reapers,  planters,  and  grain  separators  that 
you  know  of. 

5.  Each  pupil  should  make  a  list  of  the  different 
farm  implements  at  his  home,  and  the  make  of  each 
implement. 

References : — 

Id. — Pages  232-234. 


238  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  XC 

Title.— -The  Water  Supply. 

Season. — At  any  convenient  time. 

Object. — To  learn  some  facts  about  water  and  to  ap- 
.  preciate  the  value  of  pure  water  and  tihe  dangers  of 
impure  water. 

Material. — Clean  test-tubes  or  bottles,  sulphuric  acid, 
potassium  permanganate,  nitric  acid,  silver  ni- 
trate, barium  chloride,  ammonium  oxalate,  impure 
water  from  a  pond,  and  pure  water. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

1.  There  is  nothing  of  more  importance  to  the 
health,  comfort,  and  convenience  of  a  farm  and  house- 
hold than  an  abundant  supply  of  pure  water.  It  is 
not  easy  to  find  absolutely  pure  water.  Some  of  the 
impurities  in  drinking  water  are  harmless;  others  are 
very  injurious.  The  most  dangerous  impurities  in  wa- 
ter are  the  minute  plant  forms,  called  bacteria.  One 
kind  of  bacteria  occasionally  found  in  drinking  water, 
causes  the  typhoid  fever.  It  is  impossible  to  judge  by 
the  appearance  or  taste,  whether  water  contains  these 
dangerous  bacteria.  It  may  be  perfectly  clear  and  have 
the  finest  taste,  and  yet  be  unsafe  to  drink. 

2.  Sources  of  drinking  water  are : 

I.     Springs.      Spring   water   is   almost   always 


ELEMENTARY   AGRICULTURE  239 

pure  if  the  spring  is  deep  and  a  good  distance  from 
foul  places  such  as  barnyards  and  open  drains. 

2.  Lakes  and  reservoirs.  Water  supplied  to 
cities  is  often  taken  from  rivers  and  lakes,  and  puri- 
fied to  a  certain  extent  and  stored  in  reservoirs.  If 
there  is  any  doubt  about  the  purity  of  the  city  water, 
people  are  advised  to  boil  it  in  order  to  kill  all  the 
dangerous  bacteria. 

3.  Wells.  If  wells  are  on  a  lower  level  than  the 
barns  or  outhouses,  they  are  likely  to  contain  water 
with  the  dangerous  bacteria  in  it.  If  any  surface  wa- 
ter can  drain  into  the  well  it  renders  the  water  im- 
pure and  unfit  to  drink.  The  land  should  not  slope 
to  the  well  from  any  house  or  barn,  and  the  well  cov- 
er should  be  perfectly  tight  to  prevent  animals  from 
getting  into  it. 

3.     Good  rules  for  drinking  water : 

1.  If  there  is  any  doubt  about  the  purity  of 
drinking  water  it  should  be  boiled. 

2.  Allow  no  standing  water  about  the  farm 
premises,  for  it  may  be  the  source  of  contamination  for 
the  drinking  water. 

3.  Do  not  drink  out  of  the  cup  at  public  drink- 
ing places,  nor  from  the  common  cup  or  dipper  often 
used  in  the  school-room,  for  many  disease  germs 
are  carried  from  one  mouth  to  another,  through  the 
common  drinking  vessel.  Pupils  should  have  their 
own  individual  drinking  cups. 

4.  Always  have  clean  fresh  water  for  the  farm 
animals,  for  their  health  and  growth  depends  as  much 
on  the  water  supply,  as  does  our  own. 


240  ONE    HUNDBED    LESSONS    IN 

4.  Simple  tests  for  mineral  and  organic  impuri- 
ties in  water:  , 

If  this  lesson  is  given  in  a  school  that  has  the  ma- 
terial named  above,  the  following  tests  will  prove  in- 
teresting and  valuable : 

1.  Test  for  animal  or  plant  matter — 

Fill  a  clean  test-tube  half  full  of  the  drinkini; 
water.  Add  a  drop  or  two  of  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid,  and  sufficient  potassium  permanganate  solution 
to  color  the  water.  Heat  gently  to  the  boiling  point. 
If  the  color  changes  to  a  brownish  tint,  it  indicates 
the  presence  of  organic  matter. 

2.  Test  for  chlorides — 

To  a  test-tube  half  full  of  water,  add  a  few  drops 
of  nitric  acid,  and  then  a  few  drops  of  silver  nitrate  so- 
lution. If  there  is  any  cloudiness,  it  shows  that  the 
water  had  traces  of  chlorides  in  it. 

3.  Test  for  sulphates — 

To  a  test-tube  half  full  of  water  add  a  few  drops 
of  barium  chloride  solution.  If  there  is  a  whitish  pre- 
cipitate, it  indicates  the  presence  of  sulphates  in  the 
water. 

4.  Test  for  lime  compounds — 

To  a  test-tube  half  full  of  water  add  a  few  drops 
of  fresh  solution  of  ammonium  oxalate.  A  white  pre- 
cipitate indicates  the  presence  of  calcium  or  lime  com.- 
pounds. 

As  a  note-book  record  of  this  lesson,  the  pupils 
should  write  an  essay  on  the  Water  Supply,  bringing 
out  the  facts  they  have  learned,  and  showing  the  at- 
titude they  have  toward  the  subject. 


SLEMENTABY  AGBICULTUBE 


241 


LESSON  XCI 

Title. — Cultural  Requirements  for  Vegetables. 

Season. — Spring. 

Object. — To   learn  some   requirements  for  vegetable 

culture. 
Material. — Note-book   and  pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 

Have  pupils  copy  the  following  table  in  their  note- 
books and  learn  it  so  that  they  can  fill  it  out  from 
memory  when  the  column  of  vegetables  is  given: 


HENDERSON'S    PONDEROSA 


242 


ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


The    Vegetable. 

Soil    Requirement.  !        „     Season 

^                           Requirement. 

!               Care 

Requirements 

1.  Radish. 

Sandy  loam  soil, 
loose   and   rich. 

Loose,    deep,    cool, 
rich  soil. 

Cool    moist    soil. 

Short    season   crop. 
Full   season. 
Short    season. 

Early    planting, 
full   season. 

Clean     cultivation.  • 
Protect    from 
maggot. 

2.  Beet. 

Good    tillage. 
Weeds   kept 
down. 

3.  Turnip. 

No  care  after 
sowing. 

4.  Potato. 

Deeply    pulverized, 
cool   soil,   rich  in 
potash. 

Level    culture,    fre- 
quent   tillage, 
spray^against 

5.  Sweet    potato. 

Loose,    warm    soil, 
sandy    loam. 

Long    season. 
Sunny. 

Clean  tillage,   wood 
ashes    fertilizer. 

6.  Onion. 

Moist    rich    soil 
with  loose  sur- 
face. 

Cool  season.   Early 
and    late. 

Good    surface   tilth. 
Good   seed    needed. 

7.  Cabbage. 

Cool    deep    soil. 

Full    season. 

Spring    and    Fall 
crop. 

Short   season. 

Frequent    tillage. 
Destroy  the  worm. 

8.  Spinach. 

Cool  moist  soil. 

Grow   in   drills. 

9.  Lettuce. 

Mellow,   moist  soil. 

Good    soil    prepa- 
ration. 

10.  Celery. 

Cool,    rich,    moist 
soil,   well   pre- 
pared. 

Full    season. 

The   best  surface 
tillage,  blanch- 
ing. 

11.  Pea. 

Light  soil. 

Short   season. 

Grown   In   drills. 
Easy    culture. 

12.  Bean. 

Light,   sandy   loam. 

Warm   season, 
partial. 

Clean   tilth.      Poles 
for  tall   varieties. 

13.  Tomato. 

Rich,    "quick"    soil. 

Long,    warm 
season. 

Long,   warm 
season. 

Full    season. 
Perennial. 

Hill    planting. 
Careful    pruning, 
and    frame    sup- 
ports. 

14.  Cucumbers, 
Melons,   etc. 

Loose,     rich,    well 
prepared    seed- 
bed. 

Frequent    tillage 
until    vines    run. 
Combat    melon 
Beetles 

15.  Asparagus. 

Deep,    rich,   moist, 
cool    soil.       Fer- 
tilize often. 

Cut    in    fall    and 
top  dress   with 
manure.      Cease 
cutting   In   early 
summer. 

ELEMENTAEY  AGBICULTURE 


243 


LESSON  XCII 

Title. — Knot-tying  in  Ropes. 
Season. — A  Winter  lesson. 

Object. — To  learn  how  to  tie  useful  knots  in  ropes. 
Material. — A  few  feet  of  rope  for  each  pupil  in  the 
class. 

SUBJE^CT  MATTER  AND  ME^THOD. 

I.     The  tying  of  useful  knots,  rope  splicing,  mak- 
ing of  hitching  ropes,  halters  and  other  useful  things 


USEFUL  KNOTS 
(Courtesy  of  G.  A.  Allen,  Manual  Training  School,   Indianapolis,   Ind.) 


^44  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    iK 

of  this  kind,  are  industries  that  belong  to  the  farm, 
and  should  be  included  in  a  course  of  agriculture  for 
the  schools.  The  teacher  should  provide  a  rope  and 
make  models  of  each  of  the  eight  knots  shown  in  the 
figure,  and  hang  them  up  before  the  class. 

2.  Each  pupil  should  have  a  piece  of  rope  about 
one  yard  in  length,  and  practice  making  these  knots 
until  he  can  do  it  with  ease. 

3.  Names  of  the  useful  knots : 

a.  The  single  loop. 

b.  The  overhand  knot. 

c.  The  overhand  knot  repeated.  Used  to  keep 
the  rope  from  slipping  before  making  the  square  knot 
in  tying  bundles. 

d.  The  square  or  reef  knot.  A  strong  knot 
which  will  not  untie  by  pulling,  but  which  can  be 
easily  broken  and  untied. 

e.  The  loop  knot.  Used  in  making  a  halter 
that  will  not  slip. 

f.  The  figure  of  8  knot. 

g.  The  slip  knot.  Commonly  used  in  hitching 
horses  to  racks. 

h.  The  bowline  knot.  Used  in  tying  the  an- 
chor of  ships. 


ELEMENTARY   AGRICULTURE  245 


LESSON  XCIII 

Title.—- Fences. 

Season.— At  any  time. 

Object. — To  learn  something  about  fences,  their  ma- 
terial, construction,  and  care. 

Material. — Note-book  and  pencil.  Fences  for  observa- 
tion. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

1.  The  construction  and  care  of  the  farm  fences 
are  indications  of  the  thrift  or  shiftlessness  of  the  far- 
mer. If  the  fences  about  the  yard,  gardens,  and  fields 
are  neatly  kept,  not  allowed  to  fall  into  ruin,  and  the 
weeds  and  bushes  be  cut  from  the  rows  and  corners, 
it  is  a  sign  that  the  farmer  takes  a  pride  in  his  home 
and  farm,  and  that  he  is  successful  in  all  the  details  of 
his  business.  The  scarcity  of  timber  is  necessitating 
the  use  of  wire,  and  hedging  for  fencing  purposes.  The 
various  wire  fences,  supported  by  the  locust  or  catalpa 
posts  are  perhaps  the  best  fences  to  construct  at  the 
present  time. 

2.  Have  the  pupils  make  a  list  of  all  the  kinds 
of  fences  they  have  on  the  home  farm.  Explain  how 
they  are  made,  tell  how  long  they  have  been  construct- 
ed, and  in  what  condition  they  are  at  present. 


246  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 

3.  Teacher  and  class  should  go,  at  the  conclusi'^n 
of  this  lesson,  to  observe  some  fences  in  the  neighbor- 
hood, and  record  the  observations  as  follows: 


Kind  of  Fence.      Materials  Used.    State  of  Repair,    i  Needed  Attention. 


4.  If  there  are  any  fences  needing  repair  abotft 
the  school  yard  or  in  the  immediate  neighborhood,  it 
would  be  an  excellent  thing  as  an  application  of  this 
lesson  to  have  the  pupils  repair  the  fence  and  put  it 
in  as  good  a  condition  as  they  can. 

5.  Problems: 

1.  How  many  rods  of  fence  will  it  take  to  fence 
a  160  acre  farm? 

2.  How  many  locust  posts  would  be  required 
to  fence  the  160  acre  farm  with  wire. 

3.  What  would  be  the  cost  of  woven  wire  fence 
for  this  farm? 

4.  How  long  should  such  a  fence  last? 

Note. — Since  recent  fence-post  and  walk  construc- 
tons  have  made  use  of  cem-cnt  and  concrete  work,  it 
would  be  a  valuable  exercise  to  make  some  cement 
blocks  or  posts  at  the  school.  The  following  formula 
could  be  easily  carri-ed  out  at  any  school: — 

Cement,    i    part 

Sand,    2  or  3  parts 

Stone,    (about  one   inch  diameter,)  ...  .5  parts 
Moisten    until   the   mortar    slides    easily    from    the 
shovel. 


ELEMENTAEY  AGRICULTURE  247 


LESSON  XCIV 

Title. — Wood  Working. 

Season. — ^Winter. 

Object. — To  learn  how  to  handle  tools  and  make  some 
simple  forms  in  wood. 

Material. — A  saw,  chisel,  brace  and  bits,  a  plane,  a 
square,  a  marking  gauge,  hammer,  nails,  etc.,  and 
some  pieces  of  lumber,  and  work-bench. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND    METHOD 

Note — This  lesson  is  meant  more  for  a  suggestion 
of  what  may  be  done  in  the  course!  in  agriculture, 
than  to  give  any  explicit  work  for  an  extended  develop- 
ment of  wood  working.  It  is  very  important  that  any 
farm  boy  or  girl  should  know  how  to  use  tools,  and 
to  be  able  to  make  the  necessary  repairs  and  simple 
constructions  needed  on  the  farm.  If  the  few  tools 
can  be  provided,  and  the  class  in  agriculture  is  will- 
ing to  remain  a  few  minutes  after  the  regular  school 
hours,  a  good  beginning  can  be  made  in  this  line  of  in- 
dustrial work,  even  in  the  country  school.  Perhaps 
two  pupils  at  a  time  could  remain  to  use  the  tools  and 
do  this  work  each  evening  until  the  series  of  articles 
suggested  are  made. 

I.  To  saw  a  block,  exactly  four  inches  square. 
Do  not  be  satisfied  until  the  block  is  exactly  square, 


248 


ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


ELEMENTABY  AQBICULTUBE 


249 


and  exactly  four  inches  square  by  one  inch  in  thick- 
ness. 

2.  To  make  a  game  board.  Use  the  same  block 
prepared  above.  Use  the  brace  and  bits  and  bore  nine 
holes  in  the  block,  each  hole  one  inch  from  the  other, 
three  rows  of  holes  and  three  in  a  row.  Now  make 
six  pegs  to  fit  these  holes.  Color  three  of  the  pegs 
black  with  ink,  and  leave  three  unstained.  The  game 
board  is  now  ready  for  use. 

3.  Sawing  to  a  line.  Take  a  block,  3"x3"x6'', 
mark  lines  on  the  six  by  three  inch  faces,  parallel,  one- 
half  inch  apart.  Saw  across  the  block,  once  to  the 
one-half  inch  line,  once  to  the  inch  line,  and  once  to 


L 


r'K^- 


rtf 

(^(VwvA.  {j-raA-tJ ^ 


3''  X    3"^  X.(/ 


-N^-N: 


r  _  x_- 


=^ 


S<*<^    ^^     <*•    Vwtc. 


S^*i-<«'Vfl.    f^***^  . 


^-ifpc. 


GcOC, 


250  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 

the  one  and  one-half  inch  line.    Saw  exactly  to  the  line 
and  stop. 

4.  The  square  and  T-mortise  joint.  Take  blocks 
of  wood  about  i"xi"x3"  and  plane  them  off  smooth 
and  clean.  With  the  chisel  and  saw  cut  out  a  notch 
in  the  middle  of  one  block  to  allow  the  end  of  the 
second  to  fit  exactly  into  it.  Make  the  joint  even  and 
neat.  This  is  the  T-joint.  To  make  the  square  joint, 
bore  and  chisel  out  a  hole  near  the  end  of  the  block, 
and  cut  a  tongue  in  the  end  of  the  second  block  to  fit 
exactly,  and  neatly  into  this  hole. 

5.  To  make  a  box.  Pupils  might  make  a  pencil 
box,  dimensions  about  3"x3"x9".  This  would  necessi- 
tate an  accurate  use  of  the  saw,  plane,  square  and  ham- 
mer. 

6.  To  make  a  gate.  This  piece  of  work  would  be 
a  good  practical  application  of  all  the  pupils  had 
learned  in  the  more  elementary  practices.  It  would 
be  worth  while  to  try  to  have  this  article  made  at  the 
school.     Sample  gates  could  be  used  as  models. 

The  crude  figures  accompanying  may  help  in  some 
of  these  exercises. 

The  teacher  should  provide  models  for  all  the 
articles  to  be  made. 

All  needed  repairs  and  simple  constructions  or 
apparatus  needed  about  the  school  should  be  made  by 
the  pupils  under  the  teacher's  direction. 


ELEMENTARY  AGEICULTUEE  251 


LESSON  XCV 

Title. — The  Outlook  in  Agriculture  in  West  Virginia. 

Season. — At  any  time. 

Object. — To  learn  what  agricultural  operations  would 

pay  best  in  West  Virginia. 
Material. — Note-book   and   pencil. 

Sl'BJECT-MATTER    AND    METHOD 

Geographical  and  climatic  conditions  seem  to  in- 
dicate that  there  are  three  principal  a.siricultural  oper- 
ations which  would  pay  the  farmers  of  West  Virginia 
to   develop. — • 

1.  Fruit  growing.  Many  hillsides,  poorly  adapt- 
ed to  grain  cultivation,  would  produce  profitable  or- 
chards of  apple,  peach,  cherry,  and  other  smalhr 
fruits.  Some  of  the  best  fruit  plantations  of  the  United 
States  are  in  West  Virginia,  and  what  has  been  done 
in  one  place  can  be  done  in  many  other  parts  of  the 
State,  for  the  conditions  of  successful  fruit  culture  are 
similar  in  many  parts  of  the  State.  Tt  would  be  bet- 
ter for  the  soil  of  many  farms,  and  for  the  purses  of 
many  farmers  were  their  hillsides  planted  to  fruit 
trees,  rather  than  to  grain  fields  with  weed-filled  wash- 
outs. 

2.  Dairying,  grazing  and  stock  raising.  West 
Virginia  has  ranked  among  the  first  states  in  the  pro- 
duction of  fine-wooled  sheep,  and  there  is  no  reason 


262  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 

that  this  rank  should  not  be  maintained.  The  hills 
will  produce  the  finest  of  blue  grass,  timothy  and  clo- 
ver, and  there  are  many  natural  advantages  which  may 
be  used  in  the  winter  protection  of  the  flock.  The  in- 
creased demand  for  dairy  products  should  encourage 
grazing  and  cattle  raising.  With  the  improvement  of 
country  roads,  and  the  extension  of  the  railroads  and 
trollies,  the  sale  of  milk,  butter  and  live  stock  will  be 
greatly  facilitated,  and  the  dairy  business  become  a 
profitable   agricultural   operation   in   the   State. 

3.  Truck  gardening.  As  the  mines,  and  wells 
of  oil  and  gas  are  developed  throughout  the  State, 
more  and  more  laborers  leave  the  farm  and  become 
consumers  of  farm  products  rather  than  producers.  In 
the  many  mining  towns  which  have  sprung  up  in  all 
parts  of  West  Virginia  are  thousands  of  laborers  who 
do  not  even  have  a  kitchen  garden.  The  homes  of 
these  men  must  be  supplied  with  the  vegetables  and 
products  of  the  farm.  If  West  Virginia  farms  and 
gardens  do  not  furnish  these,  those  of  other  states  will. 
There  are  many  fertile  valleys  and  fields  near  these 
industrial  centers  that  could  produce  far  more  than 
they  now  do,  toward  supplying  the  demand  for  food 
products. 

4.  After  the  discussion  of  this  lesson  in  class, 
the  pupils  should  write  an  essay  on  one  of  the  above 
mentioned  industries,  and  copy  it  neatly  in  their  note- 
books. 


ELEMENTABY  AGBICULTUBE  253 


LESSON  XCVI 

Title.— The  Rural  Free  Mail  Delivery. 

Season. — At  any  time.  Should  probably  be  given  early 

in  the  year. 
Object. — To  learn  something  of  the  great  service  of 

the  rural  free  mail  delivery  to  the  farmer. 
Material. — Note-book  and  pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

I.  There  is  no  modern  convenience  of  greater  im- 
portance to  the  country  people  than  the  rural  free  mail 
delivery.  Although  it  is  not  self-sustaining,  and  costs 
the  government  large  sums  of  money,  it  has  come 
to  stay,  for  the  farmer  sees  that  its  service  is  a  great 
necessity  in  the  promotion  of  his  welfare.  In  order 
to  promote  the  greater  efficiency  of  the  rural  delivery 
service,  and  at  the  same  time  render  effective  aid  in 
the  improvement  of  roads  throughout  the  United 
States,  the  Post  Office  Department,  and  the  Office  of 
Public  Roads  have  entered  into  a  plan  of  co-operation 
looking  to  the  betterment  of  all  roads  where  the  rural 
service  is  extended.  Through  this  co-operation,  re- 
cently a  county  in  Indiana  spent  $85,000  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  rural  mail  routes.  Upon  the  advice 
of  the  Post  Office  Department,  the  Office  of  Public 
Roads  sends  its  engineers  to  inspect  and  advise  as  to 
the  construction  of  local  roads. 


254  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 

2.  Let  the  pupils  find  out  from  the  local  carrier 
the  following  points  of  information,  and  write  it  up 
in  the  record  of  this  lesson : 

1.  How  many  miles  does  the  carrier  travel  in 
z.  day? 

2.  What  is  the  carrier's  salary? 

3.  What  is  the  condition  of  the  roads? 

•  4.  How  many  daily,  and  how  many  weekly 
papers  are  delivered  on  the  route? 

5.  What  is  the  average,  daily,  first-class  mail 
on  the  route? 

6.  Does  the  postage  of  this  route  pay  expen- 
ses? 

3.  As  another  part  of  this  lesson  the  teacher 
should  have  each  pupil  write  a  letter  to  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  addressed  to  the  Secretary  of  Ag- 
riculture, Washington,  D.  C,  asking  for  at  least  twelve 
of  the  following  Farmers'  Bulletins :  Have  this  let- 
ter copied  neatly  in  the  note-book  record  of  this  lesson. 

FARMERS'  BULLETINS.      (FREE.) 

The   Feeding  of  Farm  Animals. 

Weeds,  and  How  to  Kill  Them. 

Potato    Culture. 

Fowls :  Care  and  Feeding. 

Facts   About   Milk. 

Sewage   Disposal   on    the    Farm. 

Commercial   Fertilizers.  ' 

Sheep    Feeding. 

Standard   Vari cities   of   Chickens. 

Some  Common   Birds. 

The  Dairy  Herd. 

Bee-keeping.  I 

Marketing   Farm  Produce. 

Meadows    and    Pastures. 

The  Liming  of   Soils. 

The    Peach    Twig    Borer. 

Thirty    Poisonous    Plants. 

Potato  Diseases   and  Treatment. 

Good    Roads    for    Farmers. 

Insect    Enemies    of    Shade    Trees. 

Farmers'    Reading    Courses 

Farmers'   Interest   In   Good   Seed. 


No. 

22. 

No. 

28. 

No. 

35. 

No. 

41. 

No. 

42. 

No. 

43. 

No. 

44. 

No. 

49. 

No. 

51. 

No. 

54. 

No. 

55. 

No. 

69. 

No. 

62. 

No. 

66. 

No. 

77. 

No. 

80. 

No. 

86. 

No. 

91. 

No. 

95. 

No. 

99. 

No. 

109. 

No, 

111. 

EtEMENTABY  AGRICULTURE  256 

No.  113.  The  Apple. 

No.   126.  Practical   Suggestions   for  Farm   Buildings. 

No.  127.  Important  Insecticides. 

No.   128.  Eggs    and  Their  Uses   as  Food. 

No.   132.  Insect   Enemies  of   Growing  Wheat. 

No.   134.  Tree-planting  in   Rural   School   Grounds. 

No.   136.  Earth  Roads. 

No.   141.  Poultry    Raising    on    the    Farm. 

No.   154.  The  Home  Fruit  Garden. 

No.   155.  How  Insects    Affect  Health   in   Rural   Districts. 

No.   156.  The  Home  Vineyard. 

No.   161.  Practical    Suggestions    for   Fruit    Growers. 

No.   170.  Principles   of   Horse   Feeding. 

No.   173.  Primer  of    Forestry. 

No.   184.  Marketing    Live    Stock. 

No.   185.  Beautifying   the   Home   Grounds. 

No.   187.  Drainage   of   Farm   Lands.. 

No.   192.  Barnyard    Manure. 

No.   196.  Usefulness  of  the  American   Toad. 

No.   198.  Strawberries. 

No.   199.  Corn    Growing. 

No.   203.  Canned  Fruits,   Preserves,   and  Jellies. 

No.   208.  Varieties    of    Fruits    Recommended    for    Planting. 

No.   213.  Raspberries. 

No.   215.  Alfalfa    Growing. 

No.   218.  The  School   Garden. 

No.   220.  Tomatoes. 

No.   228.  Forest   Planting  and    Farm   Management. 

No.   229.  The    Production    of    Good    Seed    Corn. 

No.   231.  Spraying  for  Cucumber    and  Melon  Diseases. 

No.   235.  Cement,    Mortar,    and    Concrete. 

No.   240.  Inoculation  of   Legumes. 

No.   241.  Butter  Making  on  the  Farm. 

No.   252.  An    Example    of   Model    Farming. 

No.   243.  Fungicides  and  Their  Use. 

No.   245.  Renovation    of   Worn-out    Soils. 

No.   247.  The  Control  of  the  Coddling  Moth  and  Apple  Scab. 

No.  248.  The   Lawn. 

No.   250.  The   Prevention   of  Smuts  in   Grain. 

No.   255.  The   Home  Vegetable   Garden. 

No.   256.  Preparation   of    Vegetables    for    the    Table. 

No.   260.  Seed   of   Red    Clover   in    Its   Impurities. 

No.   265.  Game  Laws  for  1906. 

No.   266.  Management   of  Soils    to   Conserve    Moisture. 

Note. — The  first  rural  route  ever  established  was 
from  Charles  Town,  West  Virginia,  by  W.  L.  Wil- 
son,  Postmaster   General,   under   Cleveland. 


256  ONE    HUin>BED   LESSOnS    IN 


LESSON  XCVII 

Title. — Beautifying  Home  Grounds. 

Season. — ^Autumn  or  Spring. 

Object. — To  learn  sometliing  of  the  principles  of  land- 
scape art,  and  how  to  map  and  design  the  home 
and  school  grounds. 

Material. — Notebook  and  pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

1.  Learn  the  following  rules  which  should  guide 
in  every  effort  to  beautify  the  school  and  home 
grounds : 

(a)  Keep  the  lawn  space  open  and  green. 

(b)  Plant  in  masses  at  the  background,  against 
buildings  or  on  the  borders,  hiding  objectionable 
views  and  opening  up  pleasing  vistas. 

(c)  Avoid  the  straight  line  in  tree  planting  and 
walk  making. 

2.  It  does  not  require  wealth  nor  rare  plants  to 
beautify  the  home  or  school  grounds.  With  little 
expense,  good  taste,  a  knowledge  of  the  above  princi- 
ples, and  a  willingness  to  work,  the  homes  and  schools 
of  our  country  could  be  made  more  attractive  and  more 
natural.  The  woods  are  full  of  wild  shrubs  and  flow- 
ers, that  could  be  growing  on  our  home  and  school 
grounds,  if  we  would  only  transplant  them  there.  On 
arbor  day  every  school  should  revive  the  interest  of 


ELEMEITTABY  AGBICULTUBE 


257 


268  ONE    HUITOBED    LESSONS    IN 

the  community  in  tree-planting  and  other  means  of 
beautifying  the  home  grounds.  Back-yards  with  bar- 
ren ground  covered  with  old  tin  cans  and  broken  down 
chicken  coops  are  not  the  surroundings  in  which  boys 
and  girls  can  grow  up  into  beautiful  and  useful  char- 
acters. Our  minds  are  influenced  by  what  we  contin- 
ually look  upon,  and  if  we  must  look  upon  ugly  land- 
scapes, we  tend  to  grow  sordid  and  ugly  in  spirit;  on 
the  other  hand,  if  we  grow  up  in  a  home  and  school 
surrounded  by  beautiful  natural  scenes,  our  lives  must 
grow  more  refined  and  appreciative. 

3.  Draw  a  map  of  the  school  grounds,  locating  all 
buildings  and  plants.  Indicate  in  the  drawing  the 
planting  design  you  would  advise.     (See  opposite  page). 

4.  Draw  a  map  of  your  home  grounds,  showing 
the  location  of  all  buildings  and  plantings.  Criticize 
the  plan  of  the  planting. 

5.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  trees,  shrubs,  and  flow- 
ers that  are  growing  as  ornaments  on  your  home 
ground. 

6.  Have  a  "cleaning  up"  week,  in  which  the 
school  yard  is  cleared  of  all  trash  and  ugly  objects. 
Carry  this  move  to  the  homes,  and  have  the  pupils  en- 
ter competitive  home-  ground  cleanings.  This  could 
be  done  in  preparation  for  arbor  day,  avid  the  planting 
of  flowers,  shrubs,  and  trees  would  be  a  fitting  climax 
to  the  whole  work. 

7.  List  of  annual  flowers:  Seed  to  be  sown  after 
the  danger  of  frost  is  over.  The  best  results  are  ob- 
tained if  the  plants  are  started  in  the  house  in  April 
and  set  out  after  the  tenth  of  May.  Aster,  Cockscomb. 
Cosmos.  Dahlia,  Mignonette.  Myosotis,  and  Salvia. 


ELEMENTARY   AGRICULTURE 


259 


260  ONE    HUNDBED    LESSONS    IN 

8.  Annuals:  Seeds  to  be  sown  early.  April  or 
early  May.  Ageratum,  Alyssum,  Amaranth,  Candy- 
tuft, Carnation,  Chrysanthemum,  Dianthus,  Larkspur 
Marigold,  Nasturtium,  Petunia,  Phlox,  Poppy,  Sweet 
Pea,  Verbena,  and  Zinnia. 

9.  List  of  popular  perennials :  Plants  to  be  grown 
the  previous  summer.  Columbine,  Campanula,  Canna. 
Hollyhock,  Poppy  (hardy),  Rudbeckia,  Sunflower, 
Sweet  William,  Delphinium,  and  all  hardy  pinks. 

10.  List  of  shrubs  for  borders:  Flowering  Al- 
mond, Dwarf  Cornus,  Elder,  Forsythia,  Bush  Honey- 
suckle, Hydrangea,  Japan  Quince,  Lilac  in  variety, 
Privet,  Roses  in  variety,  Snowball,  Spirea,  Sumac,  Wei- 
gelia,  Deutsia,  Norway  Spruce,  and  other  evergreens. 

11.  List  of  trees  for  home  and  school  grounds: 
Sugar  Maple,  Norway  Maple,  Box  Elder,  White  Elm, 
Silver  Maple,  White  Birch,  Catalpa  bungei.  Tulip  tree, 
Mulberry,  White  Oak,  etc. 

12.  In  planting  trees  about  our  homes  and 
schools,  we  should  not  forget  to  plant  a  few  such  as 
the  Serviceberry,  Hackberry,  Wild  Cherry,  etc.,  which 
furnish  food  for  the  song  birds  and  attract  them  to 
our  homes  to  add  their  life  and  cheer  to  the  natural 
surroundings. 

References: — G.  &  M. — Pages  209-216. 

Send  for  catalogue  of  "Wagner  Park  Conserva- 
tories," Sidney,  Ohio.  This  is  a  reliable  nursery,  and 
their  stock  is  of  excellent  grade. 


ELEMENTABY  AGEICTJLTTJBE  261 


LESSON  XCVIII 

Title.— The  Farm  Home. 

Season. — At  any  time. 

Object. — To  try  to  picture  the  ideal  farm  home. 

Material. — Note-book  and  pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 

I.  Our  lessons  in  agriculture  would  not  do  jus- 
tice to  rural  life  if  we  did  not  refer  to  the  country 
home,  and  its  work  and  influence.  The  development 
of  the  material  and  industrial  side  of  the  home  life  has 
not  kept  pace  with  the  progress  of  men's  work  on  the 
outside.  Many  of  the  industries  of  the  early  homes 
have  been  wisely  taken  from  them  and  given  over  to 
the  factories  and  shops.  Two  industries  yet  remain : 
cooking  and  cleaning.  These  are  not  much  further 
advanced  in  their  development  than  they  were  a  thou- 
sand vears  ago.  The  time  may  come,  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  it  will,  when  women  of  the  home  will  he  relieved 
from  most  of  the  drudgery  of  cleaning  and  cookinsr. 
and  these  industries  be  turned  over  to  specialists  who 
will  do  them  better  and  cheaper  than  they  are  now 
done,  and  that  the  home  mav  become  a  place  of  rest 
and  culture  for  the  lives  within.  Tt  will  be  long  years 
before  such  ideals  can  be  realized  in  the  country,  yet 
much  can  be  done  in  the  country  home  to  lighten  the 


262  ONE    HTJNDBED    LESSONS    IN 

labors  of  the  mother,  and  enlighten  the  members  of 
the  household. 

2.     Some  conditions   making  for  the  betterment 
of  the  farm  home: 

1.  Beautiful  natural  surroundings,  as  brought 
out  in  a  former  lesson. 

2.  Absolute  cleanliness  from  cellar  to  garret. 

3.  The  absence  of  all  carpets,  lace  curtains,  and 
bric-a-brac,  and  their  places  supplied  with  smooth, 
hard-wood  finish  of  window  and  door  casings;  hard- 
wood, waxed  floors;  and  furniture  of  plain,  uncarved, 
smooth  type. 

4.  Few  pictures,  well  selected,  in  plain,  modest 
frames,  placed  upon  walls  of  restful  tints. 

5.  Good  books,  daily  papers,  magazines,  and 
farm  journals  in  the  library. 

6.  Musical  instruments  and  members  of  the 
family  who  can  appreciate  good  music. 

7.  Ample,  shady  porches,  screened  doors  and 
windows,  and  well  ventilated  rooms. 

8.  Pure,  clean  food,  well  prepared  and  cooked, 
and  cool,  clean  kitchen  and  dining  rooms  in  which  to 
prepare  and  eat  the  meals. 

9.  A  bath-room,  with  hot  and  cold  water  sup- 
plied. 

10.  A  telephone,  and  rural  free  mail  service. 

11.  All  the  labor  saving  machines  that  can  be  af- 
forded. 

12.  Good  roads,  good  schools,  good  churches, 
good  markets  available,  and  good  people  to  live  in 
the  homes. 


ELEMENTABT  AGBICULTUBE  263 

3.  A  stronger  and  better  country  home!  That 
is  what  we  want.  That  is  what  we  must  have.  The 
"New  Earth"  that  is  coming,  will  bring  its  rural 
homes  of  good  cheer,  of  culture  and  education.  In 
these  homes  will  be  strong  men,  sensible  women,  and 
happy  children.  Love  will  be  law  and  wisdom  chief 
ruler,  and  the  child  that  is  born  in  them  is  sure  of  all 
that  the  highest  thought  can  secure  for  him  in  body, 
soul  and  spirit. 

"This  is  the  stronger  home,  and  in  that  home  must 
be  seen  all  the  graces  and  gentleness  in  thought  and 
word  that  make  the  happy  illumination  which,  on  the 
inside  of  the  house,  correspond  to  morning  sunlight 
outside,  falling  on  quiet  dewy  fields.  Out  of  such 
homes  neither  knaves  in  politics,  nor  tyrants  in  busi- 
ness competition  can  ever  come.  With  such  homes, 
the  golden  age  already  dawning  as  the  new  century 
opens  hastens  its  steps. 

And  for  the  woman  in  that  home : — 
"A  woman,  in  so  far  as  she  beholdeth 

Her  one  Beloved's  face ; 
A  mother, — with  a  great  heart  that  enfoldeth 

The  children  of  the  race; 
A  body  free  and  strong,  with  that  high  beauty 

That  comes  of  perfect  use  is  built  thereof; 
A  mind  where  reason  ruleth  over  duty, 

And  justice  reigns  with  love; 
A  self-poised,  royal  soul,  brave,  wise,  and  tender. 

No  longer  blind  and  dumb ; 
A  human  being  of  unknown  splendor, 

Is  she  who  is  to  come."  — (Helen  Campbell.) 

References : — Id. — Pages  240-246. 


2€4  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  XCIX 

Title.— ^The  Grange. 

Season. — At  any  time. 

Object. — To  learn  something  of  the  work  and  pur- 
pose of  the  Grange,  the  greatest  farmers'  organi- 
zation in  the  world. 

Material. — Note-book  and  pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND   METHOD 

Some  facts  about  the  Grange,  submitted  to  the 
author  by  Prof.  T.  C.  Atkeson,  Master  of  West  Vir- 
ginia State  Grange,  and  Overseer  of  the  National 
Grange. 

"The  idea  of  a  farmers'  fraternal  organization  orig- 
inated in  the  mind  of  Oliver  H.  Kelley,  a  Minnesota 
farmer,  while  on  a  trip  through  the  southern  states 
in  1867,  soon  after  the  ^close  of  the  great  Civil  War, 
where  he  had  been  sent  by  President  Johnson  to  see 
what  might  be  done  to  rebuild  the  devastated  agri- 
culture of  that  great  agricultural  region.  Mr.  Kelley 
was  a  high  degree  Free  Mason,  and  naturally  his  idea 
of  a  farmers'  organization  took  the  form  of  a  secret 
society.  Soon  after  his  return  to  Washington,  where 
he  reported  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  he  paid 
a  visit  to  his  niece.  Miss  Carrie  A.  Hall,  who  resided 
in  Boston,  and  outlined  to  her  his  proposed  farmers' 


ELEMENTABY   AGEICULTUBE  265 

organization.  Miss  Hall  suggested  that  farmers'  wives 
and  daughters  be  admitted  on  full  equality  with  the 
men,  and  from  the  first,  the  organization  which  fol- 
lowed has  made  no  distinction  on  account  of  sex.  Mr. 
Kelley  unfolded  his  plans  to  a  number  of  gentlemen 
in  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  elsewhere,  who 
became  interested  in  the  matter. 

The  first  meeting  was  held  in  the  office  of  William 
Saunders,  the  horticulturist  of  the  Agricultural  De- 
partment at  Washington,  on  the  evening  of  December 
the  fourth,  1867,  which  has  ever  since  been  known 
as  the  birthday  of  the  order.  The  organization  was 
named,  "Patrons  of  Husbandry,"  and  the  word, 
"Grange,"  which  means  a  farm  home,  was  substituted 
for  "lodge"  as  used  by  other  organizations. 

There  are  Subordinate,  Pomona,  State,  and  Na- 
tional Granges,  each  one  of  which  is  represented  by 
delegates  in  the  next  highest  body  up  to  the  National 
Grange  which  is  the  supreme  authority.  All  Granges 
have  the  same  officers  as  follows:  Master,  Overseer, 
Lecturer,  Steward,  Assistant  Steward,  Chaplain,  Treas- 
urer, Secretary,  Gate  Keeper,  Ceres,  Pomona,  Flora, 
and  Lady  Assistant  Steward. 

The  purpose  of  the  organization  is  to  promote  the 
interest  of  agriculture  in  every  legitimate  way  possible, 
educationally,  legislatively,  co-operatively,  and  social- 
ly, with  a  view  to  develop  a  better  manhood  and  wo- 
manhood on  American  farms.  In  its  forty-one  years 
of  history,  the  Grange  has  accomplished  a  vast  amount 
of  good  for  American  farmers,  and  practically  every 
advancement  made  by  agriculture  in  that  time  origi- 
nated with  the   Grange  or  has  been  effectively  pro- 


266  ONE    HUITDBED    LESSONS    IN 

moted  by  it.  The  Grange  was  an  important  factor 
in  the  establishment  of  agricultural  colleges,  and  high 
schools,  and  originated  the  idea  of  teaching  elemen- 
tary agriculture  in  the  public  schools.  Experiment 
stations  are  mainly  the  product  of  Grange  advocacy. 
Rural  mail  delivery,  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  and  hundreds 
of  other  measures  of  state  or  national  legislation  orig- 
inated w^ith  the  Grange  or  were  promoted  by  it.  Its 
value  to  agriculture  is  beyond  computation." 

The  Grange  is  a  live  institution.  It  is  satisfying 
a  great  need  in  rural  society.  It  is  based  on  correct 
principles:  organization,  co-operation,  education,  [t 
is  neither  a  political  party  nor  a  business  agency.  It 
is  neither  ultra-radical  nor  forever  in  the  rut.  Its  chief 
work  is  on  cultural  lines.  It  includes  the  entire  fam- 
ily. It  is  now  growing,  and  its  growth  is  of  a  perma- 
nent character. 

"The  Grange  is  ambitious  to  take  its  place  beside 
the  school  and  the  church,  as  one  of  the  trinity  of  forces 
that  shall  mold  the  life  of  the  farmer  on  the  broad- 
est possible  basis, — material,  intellectual,  social,  and 
ethical.  Is  there  any  good  reason  why  this  ambition 
is  not  worthy,  or  why  its  goal  should  not  be  won?" 
(President  Butterfield  of  the  Mass.  Agricultural  Col- 
lege, from  his  Chapters  on  Rural  Progress.) 

Why  Farmers  Should  Join  the  Grange. 

(By  the  authority  of  the  Master  of  the  National 
Grange.) 

1.  Because  it  is  inexpensive. 

2.  Because  it  is  the  farmer's  only  organization, 


ELEMENTABY  AGBICULTUBE  267 

national  in  character. 

3.  Because  it  has  stood  the  test  for  forty-one 
years,  and  has  never  been  found  wanting  in  any  re- 
spect. 

4.  Because  it  has  exerted  greater  influence  in 
securing  state  and  national  legislation  in  the  interest 
of  agriculture  than  any  agency  in  the  country. 

5.  Because  it  is  officered  by  those  engaged  in 
agriculture,  who  know  from  experience  the  needs  of 
farmers,  and  are  sincere  in  their  desire  to  aid  them 
in  every  possible  way. 

6.  Because  it  is  the  duty  of  farmers  to  co-operate 
with  one  another,  if  they  would  successfully  meet  the 
influence  of  organization  in  every  direction,  and  secure 
for  wife  and  home  a  fair  share  of  what  the  harvest 
yields. 

7.  Because  it  has  exerted  the  greatest  influence 
known  in  breaking  up  the  isolation  of  farm  life,  and 
in. making  farm  life  attractive  to  the  boys  and  girls, 
bringing  sunshine  and  happiness  into  the  farm  home 
to  such  an  extent  as  has  never  before  existed. 

After  the  teacher  has  discussed  this  lesson  with 
the  pupils,  all  the  text-book  should  be  laid  aside,  and 
the  pupils  asked  to  write  a  brief  essay  in  their  note- 
books on  the  Grange,  its  history,  plan  of  organization, 
purposes  and  work. 

R-eferences : — The  National  Grange  Periodical, 
Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Chapters  in  Rural  Progress — Butterfield. 


268  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


LESSON  C. 

Title. — ^Juvenile  Agricultural  Societies. 

Season. — At  beginning  of  school  term. 

Object. — To  learn  how  to  organize  and  conduct  an  ag- 
ricultural club  or  society  among  boys  and  girls. 

Material. — The  school  house  may  be  the  meeting  place 
of  a  permanent  organization.  Such  other  materials 
as  any  organized  body  needs. 

SLBJECT-MATTER  AND   METHOD 

This  subject  is  here  treated  as  a  lesson  in  order 
to  be  in  harmony  with  the  plan  of  the  series.  In  the 
agriculture  class,  on  the  day  preceding  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  society,  the  teacher  should  announce  the 
plan  and  try  to  awaken  an  interest  in  the  organiza- 
tion, and  its  purposes. 

A  Friday  afternoon  quarter  may  be  devoted  to 
this  work,  and  the  pupils  above  the  age  of  eight  includ- 
ed. All  boys  and  girls  should  know  how  to  organize 
themselves,  for  in  this  way  is  learned  that  great  les- 
son of  co-operation,  so  vital  today  in  rural  life. 

Let  one  of  the  older  boys,  at  the  suggestion  of 
the  teacher,  call  the  meeting  to  order.  Then  let  some 
boy  rise  and  say: 

"Mr.  Chairman,  I  nominate  John  Reihle  (for  ex- 
ample) for  President."  Another  rises  and  says: 


ELEMSNTAHY    AGBICULTUBE  269 

"Mr.   Chairman,   I   second   the  nomination." 

Then  let  some  one  rise  to  say: 

'*Mr.  Chairman,  if  there  are  no  other  nominations, 
I  move  that  John  Reihle,  be  declared  elected  Presi- 
dent of  this  Society." 

Some  one  says,  "I  second  the  motion,"  then  the 
boy  who  is  acting  as  chairman  says: 

"It  has  been  moved  and  seconded  that  John  Reihle 
be  declared  President  of  this  Society.  Are  there  any 
remarks?"  Hearing  none,  he  says,  "All  those  in  favor 
say,  'yes'  ".  He  estimates  the  vote.  "All  those  opposed 
say,  'no'  ".  If  he  receives  more  for  than  against, 
the  chairman  declares  that  John  is  elected. 

John  then  takes  the  place  of  the  Chairman,  and 
conducts  the  meeting.  A  secretary  is  then  elected 
as  above,  preferably  from  among  the  girls.  The  fol- 
lowing Constitution  and  By-laws  should  be  read  by 
one  of  the  pupils,  and  adopted  by  the  Society  as  a 
tentative  working  plan: 

Constitution  and  By-laws  of  the  Pre- juvenile  Grange 

Club. 

Article  i. 

The  name  of  this  society  shall  be  the  Pre-Juvenile 
Grange   Club. 


Article  2. 

The  objects  of  this  society  shall  be,  as  the  name 
signifies,  to  grow  into  the  Juvenile  Grange  with  all 
its   plans   and   purposes;  to   encourage   the   study  of 


270  OITE    HUNDEED    LESSONS    IN 

Agriculture  in  the  school  and  home;  to  promote  con- 
tests in  plant  growing,  animal  raising,  literary  work, 
etc. ;  and  to  cultivate  a  love  for  the  farm  and  home. 

Article  3. 

All  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  school  over  eight 
years  of  age  are  eligible  for  membership.  Any  person 
over  eight  and  under  fifteen,  in  the  district  and  not 
in  school,  may  be  elected  to  membership  by  a  ma- 
jority vote. 

Article  4. 

The  membership  fee  shall  be  ten  cents,  and  the 
annual  dues,  five  cents,  payable  at  the  beginning  of 
the  school  year. 

Article  5. 

The  officers  shall  consist  of  President,  Vice- 
president,  Secretary,  Treasurer,  Speaker,  and  Usher. 

Article  6. 

It  13  the  duty  of  the  President  to  preside  at  all 
meetings,  preserve  order,  and  command  obedience  to 
all  rules.  His  emblem  is  a  red  ribbon  worn  on  the  la- 
pel of  his  coat.  The  Vice-president  assists  the  President 
and  presides  in  his  absence.  His  emblem  is  a  blue 
ribbon.  The  Speaker  will  assist  the  President  and  Sec- 
retary in  arranging  the  literary  program  for  the  reg- 


ELEMENTABY  AGEICULTUBE  271 

ular  meetings.  His  emblem  is  a  green  ribbon.  Th^ 
Secretary  will  keep  a  record  of  all  meetings,  receive  the 
fees  and  dues  of  the  members,  and  pay  the  same  to 
the  Treasurer,  take  and  keep  his  receipts  therefor.  His 
emblem  is  the  white  ribbon. 

The  Treasurer  shall  take  charge  of  and  keep  all 
the  money  of  the  society,  and  pay  out  the  same  only 
upon  orders  signed  by  the  President  and  Secretary. 
His  emblem  is  the  yellow  ribbon. 

The  Usher  guards  the  door,  shows  members  and 
visitors  to  seats,  and  helps  the  President  preserve 
order.     His  emblem  is  a  blue  rod. 

Article  7. 

This  society  shall  meet  every  two  weeks  at  the 
school  house,  either  in  the  afternoon  or  evening  as  the 
teacher  decides.  Meetings  may  be  held  at  the  homes 
of  members. 

Article  8 

The   order   of  business   at  the   regular   meetings 
shall  be  as  follows : 
I.     Roll  call. 


Reading  of  minutes  of  last  meeting. 
Report  of  committees. 
Proposals  for  membership. 
Voting  on  new  members. 
Literary  program. 
Miscellaneous  business. 
Adjournment. 


272  ONE   HX7NDBED   LESSONS    IN 

By-laws. 

1.  The  literary  program  prepared  by  the  Speak- 
er, President  and  Secretary,  shall  consist  of  music, 
recitations,  readings,  essays,  orations  and  debates.  The 
program  shall  be  announced  by  the  Speaker,  two 
weeks  in  an  advance. 

2.  An  annual  exhibit  should  be  arranged,  per- 
haps best  in  the  Autumn,  in  which  the  boys  will  exhibit 
fieid  or  garden  products  they  have  grown,  and  the 
girls  flowers,  vegetables  or  cookery.  In  preparing  for 
this  exhibit,  the  boys  should  each  select  in  the  spring 
the  plat  of  ground,  not  to  exceed  one  acre,  nor  less 
than  %  acre,  prepare,  plant  or  sow  any  crop  he  may 
desire.  Send  for  the  best  seeds,  either  to  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  at  Washington,  D.  C,  or  to 
the  State  Agricultural  College.  From  either  of  these 
places  the  pupil  may  get  bulletins  on  any  crop  he 
chooses  to  grow  for  the  exhibit. 

3.  The  teacher  and  society  shall  organize  com- 
mittees to  solicit  prizes  to  award  at  the  exhibit  for 
the  best  vegetables,  grain,  animals,  cookery,  etc., 
brought  by  the  pupils. 

4.  The  Society  shall  take  an  annual  excursion, 
visiting  the  farms  and  homes  of  the  district.  This 
may  take  the  form  of  a  picnic,  and  be  the  happy  end- 
ing of  the  school  term. 

5.  This  constitution  and  by-laws  may  be  amend- 
ed at  any  meeting  by  a  two-thirds  vote,  provided  the 
proposed  amendment  is  posted  in  the  school  rooms 
two  weeks  before  adoption. 


ELEMENTARY   AGRICULTURE  273 

To  the  teacher :  This  society  may  be,  and  should 
be,  if  a  Grange  is  in  the  district,  developed  into  the 
Juvenile  Grange,  a  national  order,  recognized  by  the 
Patrons  of  Husbandry. 

The  Juvenile  Grange  is  a  most  excellent  organ- 
ization for  young  people  of  the  country.  It  has  just 
enough  secret  work  about  it  to  make  it  attractive  to 
young  folks,  and  the  ceremonies  are  beautiful 
and  full  of  good  lessons  which  every  boy  and  o-irl 
should  heed.  In  changing  the  above  society  to  the 
Juvenile  Grange,  write  to  Prof.  T.  C.  Atkeson,  Mor- 
gantown,  W.  Va.,  Overseer  of  the  National  Grange, 
or  to  C.  M.  Freeman,  Tippecanoe  City,  Ohio,  Secre- 
tary, for  the  Manual  of  the  Juvenile  Grange.  Juven- 
ile Granges  must  be  organized  under  the  special 
charge  of  a  Subordinate  Grange. 

References : — Reprint  362.  Year   Ijook   1904. 


274  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


APPENDIX 


Sample  Lesson,  "Written  up,"  to  Show  Pupils  How  Each 
Lesson   Should   be   Recorded   in   Their   Per- 
manent Note-Books. 


LESSON  I 


Title. — Composition  of  Soils. 

Season. —  (State  the  time  when  the  lesson  is  studied.) 
Object. — To  study  the  composition  of  soils. 
Material. — A    cupful    of   ordinary   soil,    some    humus,    three 
one-quart  fruit-jars,   and   water. 

Subject-Matter  and  Method. 

1.  A  cupful  of  ordinary  soil  was  placed  into  one  of 
the  quart  jars  and  allowed  to  soak  for  a  few  hours  in  water 
that  Just  covered  it.  The  jar  was  then  filled  two-thirds  full 
of  water,  the  contents  thoroughly  stirred,  and  allowed  to 
settle  for  one  minute.  The  water  and  suspended  soil  was 
drained  off  into  the  second  jar,  leaving  sand  and  gravel  in 
the  first. 

2.  The  contents  of  the  second  jar  settled  for  five  min- 
utes, and  the  water  was  then  drained  off  into  the  third  jar. 
Silt  was  left  in  the  second  jar. 

3.  The  contents  of  the  third  jar  settled  three  days, 
after  which  the  water  was  drained  off.  Clay  was  left  in  the 
third  Jar. 


NOTE. — A  similar  record  of  each  lesson  should  be  made  in  the 
Agricultural  Note-book,  at  the  conclusion  of  the  experimental  or  ob- 
5?ervational  work.  A  few  of  the  most  important  facts  should  always 
be   noted   under   the   heading,    "Things   Learned   from   This   Le5?son." 


elementary  agriculture  275 

Things  Learned  From  This  Lesson. 

4.  Sand  originated  from  the  crumbling  of  silicon  rock, 
clay  from  feldspar  rock,  and  humus  from  decayed  plant  or 
animal  life.  The  particles  of  clay  are  the  smallest  and 
stickiest  of  all  soil  particles.  Humus  will  burn,  but  sand 
and  clay  will  not.  Sand  is  the  heaviest  soil  by  weight,  but 
clay  is  usually  referred  to  as  heavy  soil,  and  sand  as  light 
soil.  Clay  soils  ought  not  to  be  worked  while  wet,  because 
they  will  puddle  and  bake  into  hard  clods  when  dried  out. 
A  loam  is  a  mixture  of  sand,  silt,  clay,  and  humus. 

5.  Make  drawings  of  the  three  jars  used. 


PRACTICAL  INFORMATION. 

Contents  of  Fields. 

10  rods  X 16  rods=l  acre. 
8   rodsX20   rods^il   acre. 
10  yds.  X  484  yds.  =  l  acre. 
40  yds.  X 121  yds.=l  acre. 
220   feet X 198   feet=l   acre 
120  feet X  363  feet=l  acre. 

Quantities  of  Seed  Required  to  the  Acre. 

Wheat,  IVq  to  2  bushels. 
Oats,  2  to  4  bushels. 
Rye,   1   to  2  bushels. 
Corn,  %  to  1/4   bushel. 
Potatoes,   5  to  10  bushels. 
Timothy,  12  to  24  quarts. 
Red  Clover,  6  to  12  pounds. 


276  one  hundred  lessons  in 

Weights  of  Grain   Seed  in  Majority  of  the   States. 

Wheat,  GO  pounds  per  bushel. 

Corn,  5G  pounds  per  bushel. 

Oats,  32  pounds  per  bushel. 

Clover  Seed,  GO  pounds  per  bushel. 

Timothy  Seed,  45  pounds  per  bushel. 

Rye,.  5G  pounds  per  bushel. 

Blue  Orass  Seed,   14  pounds  per  bushel. 

Potatoes,  60  pounds  per  bushel. 

Fine  Salt,  50  pounds  per  bushel. 

Corn  Meal.  50  pounds  per  bushel. 

To  Find  the  Number  of  Bushels  in  a  Bin. 

Multiply*  together  the  length,  breadth,  and  thickness  in 
feet,  and  multiply  this  product  by  .8.  (After  Goff  &  Mayne.) 

To  Find  the  Number  of  Tons  of  Hay  in  a  Mow  or  Rick. 

In  Mow.  Multiply  together  the  height,  length  and 
breadth  in  feet,  and  divide  the  product  by  450  for  timothy, 
and  by  600  for  clover  hay. 

In  Rick.  Multiply  the  length  by  the  breadth,  and  that 
product  by  one  half  the  difference  between  the  breadth  and 
the  distance  over.  This  wijl  give  cubic  feet.  Divide  as 
above  to  find  the  number  of  tons.      (Goff  '&  Mayne  "^ 


SPRAY  MIXTURES. 
For  Fungous  Diseases. 


Bordeaux  Mixture. 

3  lbs.  copper  sulphate, 

4  to  6  lbs.  lime. 
50  gallons  water. 


elementary  agriculture  277 

For  Chewing  Insects. 

3  lbs.  to  5  lbs.  lead  arsenate  (disparene) , 
100  gallons   of   water. 

For  Sucking  Insects. 

2  gallons  kerosene. 
1  gallon  water. 

Vz  pound  whale-oil  soap. 
15  to  20  gallons  water. 


ELEMENTS  OF  FORESTRY. 

In  connection  with  the  lessons  on  trees  in  this  text,  the 
folliowing  outline  from  Circular  130  of  the  Forest  Service, 
will  furnish  some  excellent  subject-matter  for  the  teaching 
of  the  elements  of  forestry: 

A.     The   forests  of   the   locality   in    which   you   are   teaching. 
I.     Economic  value. 

1.  As  sources  of  useful  products. 

2.  For    conservation    of   water.      (Irrigation,    water 
power,    town    and    city   supplies,    etc.) 

3.  For  protection.      (Floods,    hot,   cold,   and  drying 
winds.) 

4.  Influence   on   erosion   and   soil   protection. 

II.     Location,  extent,  and  character  of  these  forests. 

1.  On    what    kind    of    land     (Mlly,     rocky,     sandy, 
swampy,  or  agricultural). 

2.  Character   and   use. 

a.  Softwoods   or  hardwoods. 
Virgin    or   lumbered. 
Dense,  thin,  or  open. 
Mature  or  immature. 

b.  How      utilized — conservatively     or     destruc- 
tively, for  saw  timber,  fuel,  or  other  purposes. 


278  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 

III.    Protection  of  forests. 

1.  Forest  fires. 

a.  Season  of  the  year  they  occur.  What  are 
the  causes? 

b.  State  legislation  concerning  forest  fires 
Methods  of  protection  —  State,  National  and 
private. 

c.     Precautions    individuals    should    take    against 
fires. 

2.  Grazing. 

a.     Damage  to  forest. 

B.  The  forest  of  your  state. 

I.  General. 

1.  Approximate  proportion  of  State  forested. 

2.  Principal  forest  products. 

3.  Relation  to  important  Industries  of  the  State. 

4.  Forest  planting  in  the  State — public  and  private. 

II.  Forest  reserves. 

1.  Location    and    size    of    State    reserves    and    Na- 
tional forests. 

2.  Purposes  of  the  reserves. 

C.  The  forests  of  the  United  States. 

I.  General. 

1.    Approximate    proportion    of    the    United    States 
forested. 

3.  Principal  forest  products. 

4.  Relation  to  important  industries  of  the  country. 

II.  National  forests. 

1.  General  location. 

2.  Purposes. 


ELEMENTARY   AGRICULTUEE  279 

CORNELL    UNIVERSITY    SCORE-CARD    FOR    FARMS. 


10. 
11. 


12. 


13. 


14. 


Kind   of   Farming — 

Adaptation   as   affecting   value    

Size- 
As  adapted  to  liind  of  farming  to  be  used 
Shape — 

As   affecting   shape   of  fields 

As    affecting   nearness    of    farmstead 

Topography — 

As  affecting  production    

As    affecting    ease    of    cultivation     

As   affecting   loss   of   soil    fertility 

Fertility — 

Natural     

Condition    

Physical   Properties — 

As    affecting    economy    of    cultivation 

As  affecting  number  of  days  of  labor 

As    affecting   loss    of   soil    fertility 

Drainage — 

Natural    or    artificial     

Condition — 

Freedom  from  stumps,   stones,   weeds,   waste 

land,    etc 

Climate — 

As    affecting   production    of    live    stock 

As  affecting  number  of  days  of  labor 

Healthfulness — 

As    an    economic    factor 

Water-supply — 

Running  water  and  wells    

Location — 

Local   markets    

Neighbors    

Shipping    facilities     

Roadways     

Improvements — 

Location    of    farmstead     

House    as    adapted    to    farm    needs 

Other  buildings  as  adapted  to  size  of  farm 
and  kind  of  farming    

Fences,  character,  condition,  arrangement. 
Timber,    orchards,    vineyards,    etc 

Total    


Standard  i  Students' 
Score       I   Score 


100 


The    above    score    card,    worked   out   for    the    pupils'    home    farms, 
would  make  valuable   lessons   in    Elementary   Agriculture. 


280  ONE    HUNDBED    LESSONS    IN 


"THE  COUNTRY  LIFE  COMMISSION." 

President  Roosevelt  appointed  recently  a  commission 
to  study  and  report  upon  the  conditions  of  American  country 
life.  Thl^B  commission,  of  which  L.  H.  Bailey  is  chairman, 
has  submitted  the  following  important  questions  to  farmers, 
teachers,  ministers,  business  men,  and  others  interested  in 
country  life: 

1.  Are  the  farm  homes  in  your  neighborhood  as  good 
as  they  should  be  under  ex-'lsting  conditions? 

2.  Are  the  schools  of  your  neighborhood  training  boys 
and  girls  satisfactorily  for  life  on  the  farm? 

3.  Do  the  farmers  in  your  neighborhood  get  the  returns 
they  reasonably  should  from  the  sale  of  their  products? 

4.  Do  the  farmers  in  your  neighborhood  receive  from 
the  raUroads,  troTey  lines,  etc.,  the  service  they  reasonably 
should  have? 

5.  Do  the  farmers  in  your  neighborhood  receive  from 
the  United  States  postal  service,  rural  telephone,  etc.,  the 
service  they  reasonably  should  expect? 

C.  Are  the  farmers  and  their  wives  satisfactorily  organ- 
ized to  promote  their  mutual  interests? 

7.  Are  the  renters  of  farms  :n  your  neighborhood 
making   a   satisfactory   living? 

8.  Is  the  supply  of  farm  labor  in  your  neighborhood 
satisfactory? 

9.  Are  the  conditions  surrounding  hired  labor  on  the 
farms  in  your  neighborhood  sat'sfactory  to  the  hired   men? 

10.  Have  the  farmers  in  your  neighborhood  satisfactory 
facilities  for  doing  their  business  in  banking,  credit, 
insurance,    etc.? 

11.  Are  the  sanitary  conditions  of  the  farms  in  your 
ne'ghborhood   satisfactory? 

12.  Do  the  farmers  and  their  wives  and  fami'ies  in 
your  neighborhood  get  together  for  mutual  improvement, 
entertainment,  and  social  intercoun?e  as  much  as  they 
should? 

Note. — Accompanying  each  question  are  the  subordinate 
quest" ons:   "Why?"     "What  suggestions  have  you  to  make?" 


ELEMENTARY    AGRICULTURE  2  SI 


"THE  WORK  OF  THE  COUNTRY  LIFE  COMMISSION." 

In  the  summary  of  their  report  the  President's  Commis- 
sioners give  us  a  clear  view  of  the  existing  conditions  of 
country  life.     Here  is  what  they  say:  — 

"The  commission  finds  that  agriculture  in  the  United 
States,  taken  together,  is  prosperous  commercially,  when 
measured  by  the  conditions  that  have  obtained  in  previous 
years,  although  there  are  some  regions  'in  which  this  is  only 
partially  true.  The  country  people  are  producing  vast  quan- 
tities of  supplies  for  food,  shelter,  clothing  and  for  use  in  the 
arts.  The  country  homes  are  improving  in  comfort,  attract- 
iveness and  healthfulness.  Not  only  in  the  material  wealth 
that  they  produce,  but  in  the  supply  of  independem:  and 
strong  citizenship,  the  agricultural  people  constitute  the 
very  foundation  of  our  national  efficiency.  A.s  agriculture  is 
the  immediate  basis  of  country  life,  so  it  follows  that  the 
general  affairs  of  the  open  country,  speaking  broadly  are  in 
a  condition  of  improvement, 

"Yet  it  is  true,  notwithstanding  all  this  progress  as 
measured  by  historical  standards,  that  agriculture  is  not  com- 
mercially as  profitable  as  it  is  entitled  to  be  for  the  labor  and 
energy  that  the  farmer  expends  and  the  risks  that  he  as- 
sumes, and  that  the  social  conditions  in  the  open  country 
are  far  short  of  their  possibilities.  We  must  measure  our 
agricultural  eflaciency  by  the  possibilities  rather  than  by  com- 
parison with  previous  conditions.  The  farmer  is  almost  nec- 
essarily handicapped  in  the  development  of  his  business,  be- 
cause his  capital  is  small  and  the  volume  of  his  transactions 
limited;  and  he  usually  stands  practically  alone  against  or- 
ganized interest.  In  the  general  re-adjustment  of  modern 
life  doomed  to  the  great  changes  in  manufactures  and 
■commerce,  inequalitis  and  discriminations  have  arisen,  and 
naturally  the  separate  man  suffers  most. 

"The  disadvantage  or  handicap  of  the  farmer  as  against 


282  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 

the  established  bussiness  systems  and  interest,  prevents  him 
from  securing  adequate  returns  for  his  products,  deprives 
him  of  the  benefit  that  would  result  from  unmonopolized 
rivers  and  the  conservation  of  forests,  and  deprives  the  com- 
munity, in  many  cases,  of  the  good  that  would  come  from 
the  use  of  great  tracts  of  agriculture  land  that  are  now 
held  for  speculative  purposes." 

Referring  to  the  work  of  the  Commission,  President 
Roosevelt  says: — 

"It  wishes  to  bring  not  only  the  farmers  but  the  nation 
as  a  whole,  to  realize  that  the  growing  of  crops,  though  an 
essential  part,  is  only  a  part  of  country  life.  Crop  growing 
is  the  essential  foundation,  but  it  is  no  less  essential  that  the 
farmer  shall  get  an  adequate  return  for  what  he  grows. 

"Three  great  general  and  immediate  needs  of  country  life 
stand  out: 

"First,  effective  co-operation  among  farmers,  to  put  them 
on  a  level  with  the  organized  interests  with  which  they  do 
business. 

"Second,  a  new  kind  of  schools  in  the  country,  which 
shall  teach  the  children  as  much  outdoors  as  indoors,  and 
perhaps  more,  so  that  they  will  prepare  for  country  life,  and 
not  as  at  present,  mainly  for  life  in  town. 

"Third,  better  means  of  comunication,  including  good 
roads  and  a  parcels  post,  which  the  country  people  are  ev- 
erywhere, and  rightly,  unanimous  in  demanding." 

In  brief,  taking  the  whole  country  into  consideration, 
the  chief  cause  of  the  deficiencies  in  rural  life  is  poverty — 
poverty  due  to  stealing.  Lacking  sufficient  co-operation  and 
organization  to  protect  themselves  against  the  trade,  transpor- 
tation and  financial  interests  cunningly  organized  and  com- 
bined again  t  them,  farmers  as  a  body  fail  to  hold  a  fair 
share  of  the  wealth  they  produce.  Whenever  and  wherever 
farmers  can  get  adequate  returns  for  what  they  grow,  and 
can  hold  what  they  earn,  life  in  the  open  country  will  bound 
upward  to  a  plane  that  will  need  no  commission  to  study 
means  for  its  betterment. 

It  Is  estimated   that  out  of  every  dollar  paid  for  farm 


ELEMENTARY    AGRICULTURE  283 

products  by  consumers,  farmers  get  only  thirty-five  cents. 
Let  us  suppose  they  could  get  even  fifty  cents  out  of  each 
dollar.  Then  country  people  could  afford,  and  would  have 
better  roads,  better  schools,  better  homes,  better  sanitary 
conditions,  bettre  health,  better  social  conditions,  and  better 
everything  else  that  concerns  rural  life.  And  they  are  go- 
ing to   get   them. 

The  future  welfare  of  the  whole  nation  demands  that 
restraint  of  trade  shall  be  immediately  superseded  by  re- 
straint of  the  modern  Robin  Hood  plunder-band — genteel 
band  of  outlaws  "who  steal  the  goose  and  give  away  the 
giblet  in  alms." 

It  remains  for  you,  teachers  and  pupils,  who  love  the 
country  life  and  desire  its  best  interests,  in  the  spirit  and 
Intelligence  with  which  you  have  pursued  these  lessons,  to 
go  forth  as  leaders,  where  leadership  is  so  much  needed, — 
in  the  open  country.  Be  leaders  in  the  grange.  Be  leaders 
in  boys'  and  girls'  clubs.  Be  leaders  in  country  school  and 
church.  Uphold  and  advance  every  movement  that  will  bring 
larger  measures  of  justice  and  education  to  the  farmer  and 
his  family. 


2  84  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 


CONSERVATION   OF  THE   NATURAL  RESOURCES 

A  text-book  in  agriculture  would  fail  in  an  essential  duty 
if  it  did  not  call  attention  to  the  great  need  of  the  conserva- 
tion of  our  natural  resources.  In  a  recent  conference,  Hon. 
Gifford  Pinchot,  the  U.  S.  Forester,  advised  the  preparation 
of  text-books  on  conservation,  and  strongly  urged  that  the 
problem  be  presented  to  the  children  of  the  public  schools. 

"We  have  been  concerning  ourselves  about  every  other  sub- 
ject under  the  sun,  while  we  ate,  drank,  and  made  merry  over 
the  abundance  of  our  natural  resources.  As  a  nation  we  have 
wasted  our  substance  by  riotous  living,  and  now  we  hear 
our  President  sounding  the  alarm  by  saying,  that  the  ques- 
tion of  the  conservation  of  our  natural  resources  is  one  of 
the  most  important  problems  now  before  the  American 
people. 

In  the  building  of  King  Solomon's  temple,  "he  set  up 
the  pilars  in  the  porch  of  the  temple:  and  he  set  up  the 
right  pillar,  and  called  the  name  there  of  jachin:  and  he  set 
up  the  left  pillar,  and  called  the  name  there  of ,  Boaz."  These 
names  signified  strength  and  stability.  "And  upon  the  top 
of  the  pillars  was  lily  work:  so  was  the  work  of  the  pillars 
finished." 

In  the  building  of  the  temple  of  our  country's  material 
greatness  we  have  forgotten  to  set  up  the  pillars  of  strength 
and  stability,  and  have  been  trying  to  add  the  lily  work. 
Our  natural  resources  are  the  Boaz  and  .Jachin  of  the 
country's  material  strength,  and  before  the  lily-work,  come 
the  pillars. 

Disregarding  the  question  of  moral  purposes,  the  pros- 
perity o!"  our  people  depends  directly  upon  the  energy  and 
intelligence  with  which  we  use  the  soil,  the  forests,  the 
mines,  and  the  waters  of  the  earth.     From  the  sea,  the  mine, 


ELEMENTAKY    AGRICULTURE  285 

the  forest  and  the  soil,  must  be  gathered  everything  that 
can  sustain  the  life  of  man.  How  stands  the  inventory  of 
our   property    at   the    beginning   of   the   twentieth    century? 

The  sea  furnishes  5  per  cent,  of  our  food  products.  The 
forests  are  fast  disappearing.  We  are  consuming  wood  three 
times  faster  than  the  forests  grow,  and  without  reforestation, 
the  present  century  will  see  the  end  of  our  timber. 

The  mines  of  coal,  oil,  and  gas  are  incapable  of  restora- 
tion. The  wealth  of  these  resources  can  be  used  only  once. 
When  fuel  becomes  scarce,  as  far  as  we  can  now  foresee, 
man  will  suffer  as  he  would  if  the  air  were  gradually  with- 
drawn. One  has  only  casually  to  observe  to  note  the  great 
^  ?s*^e  of  coal,  oil,  and  gas  that  is  continually  going  on  un- 
checked. 

Our  greatest  source  of  wealth  is  the  land, — the  soil. 
How  are  we  caring  for  it?  The  last  census  shows  that  the 
average  annual  product  per  acre  of  the  whole  country  was 
$11.38,  a  little  more  than  a  respectable  rental  in  some  places, 
w^here  the  land  is  well  cared  for.  We  are  robbing  the  soil 
in  order  to  get  the  largest  returns  in  /the  shortest  time.  We 
have  done  this  in  two  ways, — by  single  cropping  and  by  neg- 
lect of  fertilization.  We  need  the  intelligent  treatment  of 
smaller  areas,  raising  the  productivity  to  three  or  four  times 
the  present  rate.  Thirty-six  per  cent,  of  our  people  live 
directly  by  agriculture  and  the  rest  depend  upon  it.  We 
shall  have  200  million  people  here  by  1950.  How  shall  they 
be  employed  and  wherewithal  shall  they  be  fed? 

Time  was  when  the  son  of  the  farmer  could  go  West, 
when  his  father's  farm  was  run  down,  now  all  this  is  changed. 
The  son  of  the  farmer,  if  he  follows  his  father's  vocation, 
must  make  his  living  on  his  father's  farm.  This  can  be  done, 
if  the  father  exercises  wisdom.  No  wise  use  of  the  soil  ex- 
hausts its  fertility. 

And  finally  the  greatest  waste  of  resources  is  the  loss 
that  comes  to  all  our  material  development,  through  ignorant 
minds  and  unskilled  bands.  It  is  the  old  curse  of  ignorance 
together  with  the  primal  sin  of  selfishness  that  has  lead  to 
the  waste  of  the  world's  substance.     It  is  the  hope  of  the 


2  86  ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS    IN 

New  Earth  that  before  we  must  eat  the  husks  that  belong 
to  the  swine,  we  shall  turn  like  the  prodigal  to  the  old  home, 
and  there  find  the  fatted  calf  and  an  j^bundance  for  all, 
because  the  fathers  and  sons  have  wisely  used  the  inheritance 
of   nature. 


T>o  YOU   want  to  get  Better   ^suits    in    your 
Writing  Classes  ? 


This  is  one  of  the  easiest  subjects  to  teach  there 
is — the  reason  so  few  teaxjhers  can  teach  it  is  be- 
cause of  the  fact  that  there  have  been  no  books 
to  tell  them  how.  We  realized  this  need  and 
have  made  arrangements  to  publish  a  revised 
edition  of 


''  How  to  Teach  Writing  in  tt^e  Public  Schools.  " 


By  C.  L.  Michael,  who  for  five  years  was  Super- 
visor of  Penmanship  in  the  Fairmont  (W.  Va.) 
State  Normal  School,  and  who  is  now  Principal 
of  the  Commercial  Department  of  the  Phoenix 
(Ariz.)  Union  High  School.  This  work  has  the 
endorsement  of  scores  of  teachers,  nearly  all  of 
whom  testify  to  the  fact  that  through  its  use  they 
are  able  to  get  from  50%  to  100%  better  results 
in  their  writing  classes. 


To  the  Teacher  w/^o  Wants  to  zMake  Good  : 

Get  better  results  in  your  writing — the  parents 
can  SEE  the  improvement  there  and  it  is  more 
noticeable  than  in  any  other  branch. 

Price     50c 

The  copies  given  in  the  book  are  printed  sep- 
arately for  use  by  the  students. 

Price    per    set    10c 

Book  will  be  ready  July  1,  1909. 

Special   prices   on   larger   quantities. 

THE  ACME  PUBLISHING  CO., 

Morgantown,  West  Virginia. 


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